miercuri, 24 aprilie 2024

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Iulius Caesar de William Shakespeare


Tragedia lui Iulius Caesar este o tragedie a lui William Shakespeare, despre care se crede că a fost scrisă în 1599. Este una dintre cele câteva piese scrise de Shakespeare bazate pe evenimente reale din istoria romană, printre care se numără și Coriolanus și Antoniu și Cleopatra.


Rezumat:


Doi tribuni, Flavius și Murellus, găsesc zeci de cetățeni romani rătăcind pe străzi, neglijându-și munca pentru a urmări parada triumfală a lui Iulius Cezar: Cezar i-a învins în luptă pe fiii generalului roman decedat Pompei, rivalul său. Tribunii ceartă cetățenii că și-au abandonat atribuțiile și îndepărtează decorațiunile de pe statuile lui Cezar. Cezar intră cu anturajul său, inclusiv cu figurile militare și politice Brutus, Cassius și Antoniu. Un prezicător îl cheamă pe Cezar să „se ferească de ideile lui martie”, dar Cezar îl ignoră și continuă cu sărbătoarea victoriei (I. i. 19, I. i. 25).


Cassius și Brutus, ambii apropiați ai lui Cezar și între ei, conversează. Cassius îi spune lui Brutus că a părut distant în ultima vreme; Brutus îi răspunde că a fost în război cu el însuși. Cassius afirmă că își dorește ca Brutus să se vadă așa cum îl văd alții, căci atunci Brutus și-ar da seama cât de onorat și respectat este. Brutus spune că se teme că poporul vrea ca Cezar să devină rege, ceea ce ar răsturna republica. Cassius este de acord că Cezar este tratat ca un zeu, deși este doar un om, nu mai bun decât Brutus sau Cassius. Cassius își amintește de incidentele slăbiciunii fizice ale lui Cezar și se minunează că acest om greșitor a devenit atât de puternic. El dă vina pe lipsa de voință a lui și a lui Brutus pentru că au permis ridicarea lui Cezar la putere: cu siguranță ascensiunea unui astfel de om nu poate fi lucrarea sorții. Brutus consideră cuvintele lui Cassius la întoarcerea lui Cezar. Când îl vede pe Cassius, Cezar îi spune lui Antoniu că nu are încredere în Cassius.


Cezar pleacă, iar un alt politician, Casca, le spune lui Brutus și Cassius că, în timpul festivității, Antoniu i-a oferit coroana Cezarului de trei ori și poporul a aplaudat-o, dar Cezar a refuzat-o de fiecare dată. El relatează că Cezar a căzut apoi la pământ și a avut un fel de criză în fața mulțimii; demonstrația sa de slăbiciune nu a schimbat însă devotamentul plebeilor față de el. Brutus merge acasă pentru a lua în considerare cuvintele lui Cassius privind calificările slabe ale lui Cezar de a conduce, în timp ce Cassius pune la cale un complot pentru a-l atrage pe Brutus într-o conspirație împotriva lui Cezar.


În acea noapte, Roma este afectată de vreme violentă și o varietate de semne rele și prevestiri. Brutus găsește scrisori în casa lui aparent scrise de cetățenii romani îngrijorați că Cezar a devenit prea puternic. Scrisorile au fost de fapt falsificate si plantate de Cassius, cine stie ca daca Brutus crede ca este vointa poporului, va sustine un complot de inlaturare a lui Cezar de la putere. Susținător devotat al republicii, Brutus se teme de posibilitatea unui imperiu condus de dictatori, îngrijorător că populația își va pierde vocea. Cassius ajunge acasă la Brutus cu conspiratorii săi, iar Brutus, care a fost deja câștigat de scrisori, preia controlul întâlnirii. Oamenii sunt de acord să-l ademenească pe Cezar din casa lui și să-l omoare. Cassius vrea să-l omoare și pe Antoniu, căci Antoniu sigur va încerca să le împiedice planurile, dar Brutus nu este de acord, crezând că prea mulți morți vor face complotul lor prea sângeros și îi vor dezonora. După ce au fost de acord să-l cruțe pe Antoniu, conspiratorii pleacă. Portia, soția lui Brutus, observă că Brutus pare preocupat. Ea îl roagă să aibă încredere în ea, dar el o respinge.


Cezar se pregătește să meargă la Senat. Soția sa, Calpurnia, îl imploră să nu meargă, descriind coșmarurile recente pe care le-a avut în care o statuie a lui Caesar curgea cu sânge și bărbații zâmbitori și-au îmbăiat mâinile în sânge. Cezar refuză să cedeze fricii și insistă să-și vadă de treburile sale zilnice. În sfârșit, Calpurnia îl convinge să stea acasă - dacă nu din precauție, atunci ca o favoare pentru ea. Dar Decius, unul dintre conspiratori, sosește apoi și îl convinge pe Cezar că Calpurnia și-a interpretat greșit visele și semnele recente. Cezar pleacă la Senat în compania conspiratorilor.


În timp ce Cezar se îndreaptă pe străzi spre Senat, Ghicitorul încearcă din nou, dar nu reușește să-i atragă atenția. Cetățeanul Artemidorus îi înmânează o scrisoare în care îl avertizează despre conspiratori, dar Cezar refuză să o citească, spunând că cele mai apropiate preocupări personale sunt ultima sa prioritate. La Senat, conspiratorii îi vorbesc lui Cezar, aplecându-se la picioarele lui și încercuiându-l. Unul câte unul, îl înjunghie mortal. Când Cezar îl vede pe prietenul său drag Brutus printre criminalii săi, renunță la luptă și moare.


Criminalii își scaldă mâinile și săbiile în sângele lui Cezar, aducând astfel premoniția Calpurniei la îndeplinire. Antoniu, fiind dus departe sub un pretext fals, se întoarce și se supune lui Brutus, dar plânge asupra trupului lui Cezar. El dă mâna cu conspiratorii, marcându-i astfel pe toți ca vinovați, în timp ce par să facă un gest de conciliere. Când Antoniu întreabă de ce l-au ucis pe Cezar, Brutus răspunde că le va explica scopul într-un discurs funerar. Antoniu cere să i se permită să vorbească și asupra trupului; Brutus îi acordă permisiunea, deși Cassius rămâne suspicios față de Antoniu. Conspiratorii pleacă, iar Antoniu, singur acum, jură că moartea lui Cezar va fi răzbunată.


Brutus și Cassius merg la Forum pentru a vorbi publicului. Cassius iese pentru a se adresa unei alte părți a mulțimii. Brutus declară maselor că, deși l-a iubit pe Cezar, iubește mai mult Roma, iar ambiția lui Cezar reprezenta un pericol pentru libertatea romană. Discursul împăcă mulțimea. Antoniu apare cu trupul lui Cezar, iar Brutus pleacă după ce a predat amvonul lui Antoniu. Referindu-mă în mod repetat la Brutus ca „un om onorabil”, discursul lui Antoniu devine din ce în ce mai sarcastic; punând la îndoială afirmațiile pe care Brutus le-a făcut în discursul său că Cezar a acționat doar din ambiție, Antoniu subliniază că Cezar a adus multă bogăție și glorie Romei, iar de trei ori a refuzat ofertele coroanei Antoniu produce apoi testamentul lui Cezar, dar anunță că nu-l va citi pentru că ar supăra poporul în mod excesiv. Mulțimea îl imploră totuși să citească testamentul, așa că coboară din amvon să stea lângă trupul lui Cezar. El descrie moartea oribilă a lui Cezar și arată mulțimii trupul rănit al lui Cezar. El citește apoi testamentul lui Cezar, care lasă moștenire o sumă de bani fiecărui cetățean și ordonă ca grădinile sale private să fie făcute publice. Mulţimea se înfurie că acest om generos zace mort; numindu-i pe Brutus şi Cassius trădători, masele pornesc să-i alunge din oraş.


Între timp, fiul adoptiv al lui Cezar și succesorul numit, Octavius, sosește la Roma și formează o coaliție de trei persoane cu Antoniu și Lepidus. Ei se pregătesc să lupte împotriva lui Cassius și Brutus, care au fost exilați și strâng armate în afara orașului. În tabăra conspiratorilor, Brutus și Cassius au o ceartă aprinsă în chestiuni de bani și onoare, dar în cele din urmă se împacă. Brutus dezvăluie că este bolnav de durere, căci în lipsa lui Portia s-a sinucis. Cei doi continuă să se pregătească de luptă cu Antoniu și Octavius. În acea noapte, Fantoma lui Cezar îi apare lui Brutus, anunțând că Brutus îl va întâlni din nou pe câmpul de luptă.


Octavius și Antoniu mărșăluiesc cu armata lor spre Brutus și Cassius. Antoniu îi spune lui Octavius unde să atace, dar Octavius spune că el își va da propriile ordine; deja își afirmă autoritatea ca moștenitor al lui Cezar și următorul conducător al Romei. Generalii adversari se întâlnesc pe câmpul de luptă și fac schimb de insulte înainte de a începe lupta.


Cassius își vede proprii oameni fugind și aude că oamenii lui Brutus nu fac performanțe eficiente. Cassius trimite un om de-al său, Pindarus, să vadă cum progresează lucrurile. De departe, Pindarus îl vede pe unul dintre liderii lor, cel mai bun prieten al lui Cassius, Titinius, înconjurat de trupe care aclamă și concluzionează că a fost capturat. Cassius disperă și îi ordonă lui Pindarus să-l omoare cu propria sabie. El moare proclamând că Cezar este răzbunat. Titinius însuși sosește - bărbații care îl înconjurau erau de fapt camarazii săi, aplaudând o victorie pe care o câștigase. Titinius vede cadavrul lui Cassius și, jelind moartea prietenului său, se sinucide.


Brutus află despre moartea lui Cassius și Titinius cu inima grea și se pregătește să-i înfrunte pe romani din nou. Când armata lui pierde, moartea pare iminentă. Brutus cere unuia dintre oamenii săi să-i țină sabia în timp ce el se înțepă în ea. În sfârșit, Cezar se poate odihni mulțumit, spune el în timp ce moare. Octavius și Antoniu sosesc. Antoniu vorbește peste trupul lui Brutus, numindu-l cel mai nobil roman dintre toți. În timp ce ceilalți conspiratori acționau din invidie și ambiție, el observă, Brutus credea cu adevărat că acționează în beneficiul Romei. Octavius ordonă ca Brutus să fie îngropat în cel mai onorabil mod. Bărbații pleacă apoi pentru a-și sărbători victoria. 

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WUTHERING HEIGHTS BY Emily Brontë


WUTHERING HIEIGHTS & ROMANTICISM

CRITICAL EVALUATION:

Wuthering Heights, Emily  Brontë's only novel, was published in 1847 under the pseudonym "Ellis Bell". It was written between October 1845 and June 1846. Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey were accepted by publisher Thomas Newby before the success of their sister Charlotte's novel Jane Eyre. Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë's only novel, was published in 1847 under the pseudonym "Ellis Bell". It was written between October 1845 and June 1846. Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey were accepted by publisher Thomas Newby before the success of their sister Charlotte's novel Jane Eyre.

ROMANTICISM AND THE BRONTËS

Romanticism, the literary movement traditionally dated 1798 to 1832 in England, affected all the arts through the nineteenth century. The Brontës were familiar with the writings of the major romantic poets and the novels of Sir Walter Scott. When Charlotte Brontë, for instance, wanted an evaluation of her writing, she sent a sample to the romantic poet Southey. The romantic elements in the Brontës' writings are obvious. Walter Pater saw in Wuthering Heights the characteristic spirit of romanticism, particularly in "the figures of Hareton Earnshaw, of Catherine Linton, and of Heathcliff–tearing open Catherine's grave, removing one side of her coffin, that he may really lie beside her in death–figures so passionate, yet woven on a background of delicately beautiful, moorland scenery, being typical examples of that spirit."

As the details of their lives became generally known and as Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights received increasingly favorable critical attention, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne were cast in the role of Romantic Rebels. Contributing to the Romantic Rebels Myth was the association of Romanticism and early death; Shelley having died at 29, Byron at 36, and Keats at 24. Branwell died at the age of 31, Emily at 30, and Anne at 29; to add to the emotional impact, Branwell, Emily, and Anne died in the space of nine months. The Romantic predilection for early death appears in Wuthering Heights; Linton is 17 when he dies; Catherine, 18; Hindley, 27; Isabella, 31; Edgar, 39; Heathcliff, perhaps 37 or 38.

ROMANTIC ELEMENTS IN WUTHERING HEIGHTS

The major characteristics of Romanticism could be extrapolated from a reading of Wuthering Heights:

the imagination is unleashed to explore extreme states of being and experiences.

the love of nature is not presented just in its tranquil and smiling aspects but also appears in its wild, stormy moods, nature is a living, vitalizing force and offers a refuge from the constraints of civilization, the passion driving Catherine and Heathcliff and their obsessive love for each other are the center of their being and transcend death, so great a focus is placed on the individual that society is pushed to the periphery of the action and the reader's consciousness, the concern with identity and the creation of the self are a primary concern, childhood and the adult's developing from childhood experiences are presented realistically, Heathcliff is the Byronic hero; both are rebellious, passionate, misanthropic, isolated, and willful, have mysterious origins, lack family ties, reject external restrictions and control, and seek to resolve their isolation by fusing with a love object, Hareton is the noble savage and, depending on your reading of the novel, so is Heathcliff, Brontë experiments with the narrative structure (the Chinese-box structure in which Lockwood narrates what Nelly tells him, who repeats what others told her), the taste for local color shows in the portrayal of Yorkshire, its landscape, its folklore, and its people, the supernatural or the possibility of the supernatural appears repeatedly.

ROMANTIC LOVE IN WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Romantic love takes many forms in Wuthering Heights: the grand passion of Heathcliff and Catherine, the insipid sentimental languishing of Lockwood, the coupleism of Hindley and Frances, the tame indulgence of Edgar, the romantic infatuation of Isabella, the puppy love of Cathy and Linton, and the flirtatious sexual attraction of Cathy and Hareton. These lovers, with the possible exception of Hareton and Cathy, are ultimately self-centered and ignore the needs, feelings, and claims of others; what matters is the lovers' own feelings and needs.

Nevertheless, it is the passion of Heathcliff and Catherine that most readers respond to and remember and that has made this novel one of the great love stories not merely of English literature but of European literature as well. Simone de Beauvois cites Catherine's cry, "I am Heathcliff," in her discussion of romantic love, and movie adaptations of the novel include a Mexican and a French version. In addition, their love has passed into popular culture; Kate Bush and Pat Benetar both recorded "Wuthering Heights," a song which Bush wrote, and MTV showcased the lovers in a musical version.

The love-relationship of Heathcliff and Catherine, but not that of the other lovers, has become an archetype; it expresses the passionate longing to be whole, to give oneself unreservedly to another and gain a whole self or sense of identity back, to be all-in-all for each other, so that nothing else in the world matters, and to be loved in this way forever. This type of passion-love can be summed up in the phrase more--and still more , for it is insatiable, unfulfillable, and unrelenting in its demands upon both lovers.

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CRITICAL GLANCE AT WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Initially Jane Eyre was regarded as the best of the Brontë sisters' novels, a judgment which continued nearly to the end of the century. By the 1880s critics began to place Emily's achievement above Charlotte's; a major factor in this shift was Mary Robinson's book-length biography of Emily (1883). In 1926, Charles Percy Sanger worked out the chronology of Wuthering Heights by closely examining the text; though other critics have since worked out alternate chronologies, his work affirmed Emily's literary craft and meticulous planning of the novel and disproved Charlotte's presentation of her sister as an  unconscious artist who "did not know what she had done." Critics are still arguing about the structure of Wuthering Heights:  for Mark Schorer it is one of the most carefully constructed novels in English, but for Albert J. Guerard it is a splendid, imperfect novel which Brontë loses control over occasionally.

Despite the increasing critical admiration for Wuthering Heights, Lord David Cecil could write, in 1935, that Emily Brontë was not properly appreciated; even her admirers saw her as an "unequal genius." He countered this view by identifying the operation of cosmic forces as the central impetus and controlling force in the novel. He was not the first critic to perceive cosmic forces in the novel; Virginia Woolf, for one, had earlier written of Emily Brontë and her novel that

She looked out upon a world cleft into gigantic disorder and felt within her the power to unite it in a book. That gigantic ambition is to be felt throughout the novel–a struggle, half thwarted but of superb conviction, to say something through the mouths of her characters which is not merely "I love" or "I hate," but "we, the whole human race" and "you, the eternal powers..." the sentence remains unfinished.

Nevertheless, Cecil's theory that a principle of calm and storm informed the novel was a critical milestone because it provided a comprehensive interpretation which presented the novel as a unified whole. He introduced a reading which later critics have generally responded to, whether to build on or to reject. Cecil premised that, because Emily was concerned with what life means, she focused on her characters' place in the cosmos, in which everything–alive or not, intellectual or physical–was animated by one of two spiritual principles: the principle of the storm, which was harsh, ruthless, wild, dynamic and wild, and the principle of calm , which was gentle, merciful, passive, and tame. The usual distinction between human being and nature did not exist for her; rather, for her, they were alive in the same way, an angry man and an angry sky both literally manifesting the same spiritual principle of storm. Cecil cautioned that in spite of their apparent opposition these principles are not conflicting. Either–Emily Brontë does not make clear which she thinks–each is the expression of a different aspect of a single pervading spirit; or they are the component parts of a harmony. They may not seem so to us. The world of our experience is, on the face of it, full of discord. But that is only because in the cramped condition of their earthly incarnation these principles are diverted from following the course that their nature dictates, and get in each other's way. They are changed from positive into negative forces; the calm becomes a source of weakness, not of harmony, in the natural scheme, the storm a source not of fruitful vigour, but of disturbance. But when they are free from fleshly bonds they flow unimpeded and unconflicting; and even in this world their discords are transitory. The single principle that ultimately directs them sooner or later imposes an equilibrium....

Because these principles were neither good nor evil but just were, the novel was not concerned with moral issues and judgments; rather, it presented, in Cecil's view, a pre-moral world.

Just as Brontë resolved the usual conflict between the principles of storm and calm into equilibrium, so she resolved the traditional opposition between life and death by allowing for the immorality of the soul in life as well as in the afterlife. Cecil extrapolated, "The spiritual principle of which the soul is a manifestation is active in this life: therefore, the disembodied soul continues to be active in this life. Its ruling preoccupations remain the same after death as before." In other words, the individual's nature and passions did not end with death; rather, death allowed their free expression and fulfillment and so held the promise of peace. This was why Catherine's spirit haunted Wutheirng Heights after her death.

Cecil's theory is one of the twentieth century outpourings of interpretations trying to prove the novel had a unified structure. Surveying these myriad efforts, J. Hillis Miller challenged the assumption that the novel presents a unified, coherent, single meaning: "The secret truth about Wuthering Heights, rather, is that there is no secret truth which criticism might formulate in this way... It leaves something important still unaccounted for... The text is over-rich." He suggests that readers and critics should push their reading of or theory about the novel as far as they can, until they can face the fact that their interpretation fails to account for all the elements in the novel, that the novel is not amenable to logical interpretation or to one interpretation which accounts for the entire novel.

Perhaps F.R. Leavis penned the most quoted (most infamous?) modern interpretation of Wuthering Heights when he excluded it from the great tradition of the English novel because it was a "sport," i.e., had no meaningful connection to fiction which preceded it or influence on fiction which followed it.

THE GOTHIC AND WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Whether or not Wuthering Heights should be classified as a Gothic novel (certainly it is not merleya Gothic novel), it undeniably contains Gothic elements.

In true Gothic fashion, boundaries are trespassed, specifically love crossing the boundary between life and death and Heathcliff's transgressing social class and family ties. Brontë follows Walpole and Radcliffe in portraying the tyrannies of the father and the cruelties of the patriarchal family and in reconstituting the family on non-patriarchal lines, even though no counterbalancing matriarch or matriarchal family is presented. Brontë has incorporated the Gothic trappings of imprisonment and escape, flight, the persecuted heroine, the heroine wooed by a dangerous and a good suitor, ghosts, necrophilia, a mysterious foundling, and revenge. The weather-buffeted Wuthering Heights is the traditional castle, and Catherine resembles Ann Radcliffe's heroines in her appreciation of nature. Like the conventional Gothic hero-villain, Heathcliff is a mysterious figure who destroys the beautiful woman he pursues and who usurps inheritances, and with typical Gothic excess he batters his head against a tree. There is the hint of necrophilia in Heathcliff's viewings of Catherine's corpse and his plans to be buried next to her and a hint of incest in their being raised as brother and sister or, as a few critics have suggested, in Heathcliff's being Catherine's illegitimate half-brother.

A FEMINIST THEORY OF THE GOTHIC AND WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Ellen Moers has propounded a feminist theory that relates women writers in general and Emily Brontë in particular to the Gothic. Middle-class women who wanted to write were hampered by the conventional image of ladies as submissive, pious, gentle, loving, serene, domestic angels; they had to overcome the conventional patronizing, smug, unempowering, contemptuous sentimentalizing of women by reviewers like George Henry Lewes, who looked down on women writers: Women's proper sphere of activity is elsewhere [than writing]. Are there no husbands, lovers, brothers, friends to coddle and console? Are there no stockings to darn, no purses to make, no braces to embroider? My idea of a perfect woman is one who can write but won't.

What subversive values and taboo experiences does Emily Brontë express with her passionate heroine Catherine? Moers sees subversion in Brontë's acceptance of the cruel as a normal, almost an energizing part of life and in her portrayal of the erotic in childhood. The cruelty connects this novel to the Gothic tradition, which has been associated with women writers since Anne Radcliffe . The connection was, in fact, recognized by Brontë's contemporaries; the Athenaeumreviewer labeled the Gothic elements in Wuthering Heights "the eccentricities of ‘woman's fantasy'" (1847). Moers thinks a more accurate word than eccentricities would be perversities. These perversities may have originated in "fantasies derived from the night side of the Victorian nursery–a world where childish cruelty and childish sexuality come to the fore." Of particular importance for intellectual middle-class women who never matured sexually was the brother-sister relationship.

WUTHERING HEIGHTS AS SOCIO-ECONOMIC NOVEL

The novel opens in 1801, a date Q.D. Leavis believes Brontë chose in order "to fix its happenings at a time when the old rough farming culture, based on a naturally patriarchal family life, was to be challenged, tamed and routed by social and cultural changes; these changes produced Victorian class consciousness and ‘unnatural' ideal of gentility." In 1801 the Industrial Revolution was under way in England; when Emily Brontë was writing in 1847, it was a dominant force in English economy and society, and the traditional relationship of social classes was being disrupted by mushroom-new fortunes and an upwardly-aspiring middle class. The criterion for defining a gentleman was shifting to money, from character, breeding, or family. This social-economic reality provides the context for socio-economic readings of the novel.

WUTHERING HIEIGHTS & ROMANTICISM

CRITICAL EVALUATION:

Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë's only novel, was published in 1847 under the pseudonym "Ellis Bell". It was written between October 1845 and June 1846. Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey were accepted by publisher Thomas Newby before the success of their sister Charlotte's novel Jane Eyre. Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë's only novel, was published in 1847 under the pseudonym "Ellis Bell". It was written between October 1845 and June 1846. Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey were accepted by publisher Thomas Newby before the success of their sister Charlotte's novel Jane Eyre.

ROMANTICISM AND THE BRONTËS

Romanticism, the literary movement traditionally dated 1798 to 1832 in England, affected all the arts through the nineteenth century. The Brontës were familiar with the writings of the major romantic poets and the novels of Sir Walter Scott. When Charlotte Brontë, for instance, wanted an evaluation of her writing, she sent a sample to the romantic poet Southey. The romantic elements in the Brontës' writings are obvious. Walter Pater saw in Wuthering Heights the characteristic spirit of romanticism, particularly in "the figures of Hareton Earnshaw, of Catherine Linton, and of Heathcliff–tearing open Catherine's grave, removing one side of her coffin, that he may really lie beside her in death–figures so passionate, yet woven on a background of delicately beautiful, moorland scenery, being typical examples of that spirit."

As the details of their lives became generally known and as Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights received increasingly favorable critical attention, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne were cast in the role of Romantic Rebels. Contributing to the Romantic Rebels Myth was the association of Romanticism and early death; Shelley having died at 29, Byron at 36, and Keats at 24. Branwell died at the age of 31, Emily at 30, and Anne at 29; to add to the emotional impact, Branwell, Emily, and Anne died in the space of nine months. The Romantic predilection for early death appears in Wuthering Heights; Linton is 17 when he dies; Catherine, 18; Hindley, 27; Isabella, 31; Edgar, 39; Heathcliff, perhaps 37 or 38.

ROMANTIC ELEMENTS IN WUTHERING HEIGHTS

The major characteristics of Romanticism could be extrapolated from a reading of Wuthering Heights:

the imagination is unleashed to explore extreme states of being and experiences.

the love of nature is not presented just in its tranquil and smiling aspects but also appears in its wild, stormy moods, nature is a living, vitalizing force and offers a refuge from the constraints of civilization, the passion driving Catherine and Heathcliff and their obsessive love for each other are the center of their being and transcend death, so great a focus is placed on the individual that society is pushed to the periphery of the action and the reader's consciousness, the concern with identity and the creation of the self are a primary concern, childhood and the adult's developing from childhood experiences are presented realistically, Heathcliff is the Byronic hero; both are rebellious, passionate, misanthropic, isolated, and willful, have mysterious origins, lack family ties, reject external restrictions and control, and seek to resolve their isolation by fusing with a love object, Hareton is the noble savage and, depending on your reading of the novel, so is Heathcliff, Brontë experiments with the narrative structure (the Chinese-box structure in which Lockwood narrates what Nelly tells him, who repeats what others told her), the taste for local color shows in the portrayal of Yorkshire, its landscape, its folklore, and its people, the supernatural or the possibility of the supernatural appears repeatedly.

ROMANTIC LOVE IN WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Romantic love takes many forms in Wuthering Heights: the grand passion of Heathcliff and Catherine, the insipid sentimental languishing of Lockwood, the coupleism of Hindley and Frances, the tame indulgence of Edgar, the romantic infatuation of Isabella, the puppy love of Cathy and Linton, and the flirtatious sexual attraction of Cathy and Hareton. These lovers, with the possible exception of Hareton and Cathy, are ultimately self-centered and ignore the needs, feelings, and claims of others; what matters is the lovers' own feelings and needs.

Nevertheless, it is the passion of Heathcliff and Catherine that most readers respond to and remember and that has made this novel one of the great love stories not merely of English literature but of European literature as well. Simone de Beauvois cites Catherine's cry, "I am Heathcliff," in her discussion of romantic love, and movie adaptations of the novel include a Mexican and a French version. In addition, their love has passed into popular culture; Kate Bush and Pat Benetar both recorded "Wuthering Heights," a song which Bush wrote, and MTV showcased the lovers in a musical version.

The love-relationship of Heathcliff and Catherine, but not that of the other lovers, has become an archetype; it expresses the passionate longing to be whole, to give oneself unreservedly to another and gain a whole self or sense of identity back, to be all-in-all for each other, so that nothing else in the world matters, and to be loved in this way forever. This type of passion-love can be summed up in the phrase more--and still more , for it is insatiable, unfulfillable, and unrelenting in its demands upon both lovers.

----------------------------------------------------

CRITICAL GLANCE AT WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Initially Jane Eyre was regarded as the best of the Brontë sisters' novels, a judgment which continued nearly to the end of the century. By the 1880s critics began to place Emily's achievement above Charlotte's; a major factor in this shift was Mary Robinson's book-length biography of Emily (1883). In 1926, Charles Percy Sanger worked out the chronology of Wuthering Heights by closely examining the text; though other critics have since worked out alternate chronologies, his work affirmed Emily's literary craft and meticulous planning of the novel and disproved Charlotte's presentation of her sister as an  unconscious artist who "did not know what she had done." Critics are still arguing about the structure of Wuthering Heights:  for Mark Schorer it is one of the most carefully constructed novels in English, but for Albert J. Guerard it is a splendid, imperfect novel which Brontë loses control over occasionally.

Despite the increasing critical admiration for Wuthering Heights, Lord David Cecil could write, in 1935, that Emily Brontë was not properly appreciated; even her admirers saw her as an "unequal genius." He countered this view by identifying the operation of cosmic forces as the central impetus and controlling force in the novel. He was not the first critic to perceive cosmic forces in the novel; Virginia Woolf, for one, had earlier written of Emily Brontë and her novel that

She looked out upon a world cleft into gigantic disorder and felt within her the power to unite it in a book. That gigantic ambition is to be felt throughout the novel–a struggle, half thwarted but of superb conviction, to say something through the mouths of her characters which is not merely "I love" or "I hate," but "we, the whole human race" and "you, the eternal powers..." the sentence remains unfinished.

Nevertheless, Cecil's theory that a principle of calm and storm informed the novel was a critical milestone because it provided a comprehensive interpretation which presented the novel as a unified whole. He introduced a reading which later critics have generally responded to, whether to build on or to reject. Cecil premised that, because Emily was concerned with what life means, she focused on her characters' place in the cosmos, in which everything–alive or not, intellectual or physical–was animated by one of two spiritual principles: the principle of the storm, which was harsh, ruthless, wild, dynamic and wild, and the principle of calm , which was gentle, merciful, passive, and tame. The usual distinction between human being and nature did not exist for her; rather, for her, they were alive in the same way, an angry man and an angry sky both literally manifesting the same spiritual principle of storm. Cecil cautioned that in spite of their apparent opposition these principles are not conflicting. Either–Emily Brontë does not make clear which she thinks–each is the expression of a different aspect of a single pervading spirit; or they are the component parts of a harmony. They may not seem so to us. The world of our experience is, on the face of it, full of discord. But that is only because in the cramped condition of their earthly incarnation these principles are diverted from following the course that their nature dictates, and get in each other's way. They are changed from positive into negative forces; the calm becomes a source of weakness, not of harmony, in the natural scheme, the storm a source not of fruitful vigour, but of disturbance. But when they are free from fleshly bonds they flow unimpeded and unconflicting; and even in this world their discords are transitory. The single principle that ultimately directs them sooner or later imposes an equilibrium....

Because these principles were neither good nor evil but just were, the novel was not concerned with moral issues and judgments; rather, it presented, in Cecil's view, a pre-moral world.

Just as Brontë resolved the usual conflict between the principles of storm and calm into equilibrium, so she resolved the traditional opposition between life and death by allowing for the immorality of the soul in life as well as in the afterlife. Cecil extrapolated, "The spiritual principle of which the soul is a manifestation is active in this life: therefore, the disembodied soul continues to be active in this life. Its ruling preoccupations remain the same after death as before." In other words, the individual's nature and passions did not end with death; rather, death allowed their free expression and fulfillment and so held the promise of peace. This was why Catherine's spirit haunted Wutheirng Heights after her death.

Cecil's theory is one of the twentieth century outpourings of interpretations trying to prove the novel had a unified structure. Surveying these myriad efforts, J. Hillis Miller challenged the assumption that the novel presents a unified, coherent, single meaning: "The secret truth about Wuthering Heights, rather, is that there is no secret truth which criticism might formulate in this way... It leaves something important still unaccounted for... The text is over-rich." He suggests that readers and critics should push their reading of or theory about the novel as far as they can, until they can face the fact that their interpretation fails to account for all the elements in the novel, that the novel is not amenable to logical interpretation or to one interpretation which accounts for the entire novel.

Perhaps F.R. Leavis penned the most quoted (most infamous?) modern interpretation of Wuthering Heights when he excluded it from the great tradition of the English novel because it was a "sport," i.e., had no meaningful connection to fiction which preceded it or influence on fiction which followed it.

THE GOTHIC AND WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Whether or not Wuthering Heights should be classified as a Gothic novel (certainly it is not merleya Gothic novel), it undeniably contains Gothic elements.

In true Gothic fashion, boundaries are trespassed, specifically love crossing the boundary between life and death and Heathcliff's transgressing social class and family ties. Brontë follows Walpole and Radcliffe in portraying the tyrannies of the father and the cruelties of the patriarchal family and in reconstituting the family on non-patriarchal lines, even though no counterbalancing matriarch or matriarchal family is presented. Brontë has incorporated the Gothic trappings of imprisonment and escape, flight, the persecuted heroine, the heroine wooed by a dangerous and a good suitor, ghosts, necrophilia, a mysterious foundling, and revenge. The weather-buffeted Wuthering Heights is the traditional castle, and Catherine resembles Ann Radcliffe's heroines in her appreciation of nature. Like the conventional Gothic hero-villain, Heathcliff is a mysterious figure who destroys the beautiful woman he pursues and who usurps inheritances, and with typical Gothic excess he batters his head against a tree. There is the hint of necrophilia in Heathcliff's viewings of Catherine's corpse and his plans to be buried next to her and a hint of incest in their being raised as brother and sister or, as a few critics have suggested, in Heathcliff's being Catherine's illegitimate half-brother.

A FEMINIST THEORY OF THE GOTHIC AND WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Ellen Moers has propounded a feminist theory that relates women writers in general and Emily Brontë in particular to the Gothic. Middle-class women who wanted to write were hampered by the conventional image of ladies as submissive, pious, gentle, loving, serene, domestic angels; they had to overcome the conventional patronizing, smug, unempowering, contemptuous sentimentalizing of women by reviewers like George Henry Lewes, who looked down on women writers: Women's proper sphere of activity is elsewhere [than writing]. Are there no husbands, lovers, brothers, friends to coddle and console? Are there no stockings to darn, no purses to make, no braces to embroider? My idea of a perfect woman is one who can write but won't.

What subversive values and taboo experiences does Emily Brontë express with her passionate heroine Catherine? Moers sees subversion in Brontë's acceptance of the cruel as a normal, almost an energizing part of life and in her portrayal of the erotic in childhood. The cruelty connects this novel to the Gothic tradition, which has been associated with women writers since Anne Radcliffe . The connection was, in fact, recognized by Brontë's contemporaries; the Athenaeumreviewer labeled the Gothic elements in Wuthering Heights "the eccentricities of ‘woman's fantasy'" (1847). Moers thinks a more accurate word than eccentricities would be perversities. These perversities may have originated in "fantasies derived from the night side of the Victorian nursery–a world where childish cruelty and childish sexuality come to the fore." Of particular importance for intellectual middle-class women who never matured sexually was the brother-sister relationship.

WUTHERING HEIGHTS AS SOCIO-ECONOMIC NOVEL

The novel opens in 1801, a date Q.D. Leavis believes Brontë chose in order "to fix its happenings at a time when the old rough farming culture, based on a naturally patriarchal family life, was to be challenged, tamed and routed by social and cultural changes; these changes produced Victorian class consciousness and ‘unnatural' ideal of gentility." In 1801 the Industrial Revolution was under way in England; when Emily Brontë was writing in 1847, it was a dominant force in English economy and society, and the traditional relationship of social classes was being disrupted by mushroom-new fortunes and an upwardly-aspiring middle class. The criterion for defining a gentleman was shifting to money, from character, breeding, or family. This social-economic reality provides the context for socio-economic readings of the novel.

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La 24 aprilie 1935 s-a născut Elisabeta Polihroniade, marea maestră internaţională a şahului


"Elisabeta Polihroniade s-a născut pe 24 aprilie 1935, în inima Bucureștiului, România. Încă din tinerețe, a manifestat o pasiune vie pentru șah, îndrumată de curiozitatea sa pentru jocurile intelectuale.


Deși părinții își doreau ca ea să urmeze calea medicinii, Elisabeta a urmat propria ei chemare și s-a înscris la Facultatea de Filosofie, secția Jurnalism.


În 1960, a atins statutul de maestru internațional în șah, iar din 1982 a fost recunoscută ca mare maestru internațional. De-a lungul carierei sale, a fost o prezență constantă și impresionantă în lumea competițiilor de șah. A devenit campioană națională a României de șapte ori, dominând scenele în anii 1966, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1975, 1976 și 1977.


Nu doar că a strălucit pe tabla de șah, dar a contribuit și la popularizarea acestui sport prin numeroasele sale activități și implicări. A deținut funcția de director al revistei române de șah „Gambit” și a fost vicepreședinte al „Uniunii Internaționale a Șahului Școlar”. A participat la peste 150 de turnee internaționale și a fost prezentă la numeroase Olimpiade de șah, atât ca jucătoare cât și ca arbitru internațional.


Recunoașterea sa a fost consfințită printr-o serie de distincții și decorații. În 1967, a fost decorată cu Ordinul Meritul Sportiv, iar în anul 2000 a primit Medalia Națională Serviciul Credincios. În plus, în 1999, a fost onorată cu Diploma de Onoare a Federației Internaționale de Șah (FIDE), avându-și numele înscris în „Cartea de Aur a FIDE”.


Pe lângă excelența în șah, Elisabeta Polihroniade a excelat și în domeniul jurnalismului, devenind o figură cunoscută și respectată. De-a lungul vieții sale, a călătorit în peste 66 de țări, explorând diferite culturi și experiențe, o bogăție pe care a apreciat-o mai presus de orice avere materială.


În ciuda reușitelor profesionale, viața personală i-a fost marcată de o dramă profundă. Elisabeta a trecut prin suferințe și tragedii, printre care pierderea unei fiice, o suferință pe care a purtat-o cu discreție și demnitate, preferând să se concentreze asupra pasiunii ei nemuritoare pentru șah.


Pe 23 ianuarie 2016, după o luptă grea cu boala, Elisabeta Polihroniade s-a stins din viață. Ea a fost înmormântată la Cernica."

Sursa: adevarul.ro

marți, 23 aprilie 2024

***

 

Librarul de 72 de ani (1948) Mohamed Aziz, situat în Rabat, Maroc, petrece între 6 și 8 ore pe zi citind cărți. După ce am citit peste 5.000 de cărți în franceză, arabă și engleză, rămâne în continuare cea mai veche librărie din Rabat după mai bine de 43 de ani în aceeași locație. Întrebat despre lăsarea cărților nesupravegheate afară, unde ar putea fi furate, acesta a răspuns că cei care nu știu să citească nu fură cărți, iar cei care pot, nu sunt hoți.

Este cunoscut ca cea mai fotografiată librărie din lume. Are afacerea sa de cărți uzate din 1963 în Medina, cel mai vechi cartier din Rabat, capitala Marocului. A rămas orfan la șase ani, a încercat să fie pescar pentru a-și îndeplini visul de a termina liceul, dar la cincisprezece ani a părăsit școala pentru că nu-și permitea manualele, pentru că erau prea scumpe pentru familia lui. Frustrat și fără studii, a decis să deschidă o librărie, punând cărțile pe un covor sub un copac și stă în fața magazinului său de mai bine de jumătate de secol, îndeplinindu-și visul de a studia.

Călătoria lor durează 12 ore. Înainte de a deschide librăria, caută cărți folosite în alte magazine, pentru citit și vânzare. Azi are peste șaptezeci de ani, spune că sunt suficiente două perne și o carte pentru a te simți fericit. Acumulează turnuri de cărți și la întrebat câte are, răspunde, nu sunt suficiente. Întrerupeți lectura, doar pentru a vă ruga, a fuma, a mânca și a participa și a sfătui clienții interesați de În cele din urmă librăria sa este faimoasă și mulți turiști o vizitează pentru a cumpăra niște cărți și a face fotografii.

.

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Când liliacul a-nflorit


Încă mai murmură pământul

Un cântec vechi, de neoprit,

Și cerul parcă a zâmbit

Când liliacul a-nflorit

Urcând parfumu-n zări cu vântul...


Rănește uneori cuvântul

Ce-i spus în grabă, negândit...

Dar râde soarele vrăjit

Când liliacul a-nflorit

Purtându-și alb și pur veșmântul.


Chiar timpul ș-a oprit avântul

Rămas în loc, înmărmurit,

Părând un înger fericit

Când liliacul a-nflorit,

Când floarea ș-a țesut descântul.


Speranța își plângea mormântul

Când omul drumul ș-a croit

Rănind ce Domnul a zidit...

Dar ca un dar neprețuit

E liliacul înflorit

Și păsări dragi își poartă cântul.


Acesta este legământul 

Dintre pământ și cer, tacit,

Să urce-n slavă, negreșit,

Pe scara timpului tivit

Parfumul florii mult iubit

Când peste zări dansează vântul.


Izabela Radu(Doraby)

CARACATIȚA CONDUSĂ DE LEOREANU A PUS STĂPÂNIRE PE ROMAN

 


În jurul lui Laurențiu Leoreanu, candidatul PNL la primăria Roman, există zeci de rude și persoane de încredere care ocupă funcții de conducere în aparat municipal.

Nu există angajări la stat în Roman fără ca Leoreanu sau acoliții săi să-și dea acceptul. Orașul este condus de fini, fine și cumetri, liftul social este blocat iar tinerii părăsesc localitatea.

 

Așa arată, de fapt, echipa din jurul lui Laurențiu Leorenu:

  1. Actual primar, Leonard Achiriloaie – cumătru;
  2. Aldo Pellegrini, city manager – cumătru;
  3. Ovidiu Bojescu, director tehnic – fost coleg de liceu;
  4. Maria Andrici, manager Spitalul Roman – cumatră;
  5. Mihai Vacaru, șef achiziții – cumătru;
  6. Puiu Ionel, arhitect șef interimar – fin;
  7. Mura Câmpanu, resurse umane – fină;
  8. Tatiana Danilă, contabil șef CSM Roman – cumnata primarului;
  9. Pellegrini Lorena, serviciul de administrație publică – cumătra și soția city managerului;
  10. Claudiu Marian Adascalitei, direcția edilitare – cuscru;
  11. Lucian Pascariu, director Locato (care administrează cimitirul unde un loc de veci se vinde cu 12.000 de euro) – mâna dreapta a lui Leoreanu de la PNL Roman;
  12. Carmen Puiu, serviciul de proiecte europene – fină;
  13. Ciprian Mereuță, candidat la Consiliul Local – fin.

În acest an, Leoreanu promite că va lăsa mandatul de parlamentar și candidează, din nou, la primăria Roman. Într-un articol din PressHub, portalul sprijinit în România de către Freedom House, este prezentată averea deputatului Leoreanu, care naște multe semne de întrebare.

 

 

Sursa foto – https://www.facebook.com/laurentiuleoreanu

***

 

Ai venit dezbrăcat.

Vei merge dezbrăcat din nou.


Ai venit slab.

Atât de slab încât vei pleca din nou.


Ai venit fără bani și materiale.

Veți pleca chiar și fără bani și materiale.


Primul tău duş? cineva te-a spălat.

A fost ultimul tău duş? cineva te va spăla.


Acesta este omul!


Deci de ce atâta mândrie, atâta răutate, atâta invidie, atâta ură, atâta resentiment, atâta egoism......?


Avem un timp limitat pe Pământ,

 îl irosim pe frivolitate.

***

 Sfasietoarea poveste a Iuliei Hasdeu, nascuta pe 14 noiembrie 1869 “Je suis heureuse; je t’aime; nous nous reverrons; cela doit te suffire”...