luni, 6 mai 2024

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 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD.


The earlier half of Elizabeth's reign, also, though not lacking in literary effort, produced no work of permanent importance. After the religious convulsions of half a century time was required for the development of the internal quiet and confidence from which a great literature could spring. At length, however, the hour grew ripe and there came the greatest outburst of creative energy in the whole history of English literature. Under Elizabeth's wise guidance the prosperity and enthusiasm of the nation had risen to the highest pitch, and London in particular was overflowing with vigorous life. A special stimulus of the most intense kind came from the struggle with Spain. After a generation of half-piratical depredations by the English seadogs against the Spanish treasure fleets and the Spanish settlements in America, King Philip, exasperated beyond all patience and urged on by a bigot's zeal for the Catholic Church, began deliberately to prepare the Great Armada, which was to crush at one blow the insolence, the independence, and the religion of England. There followed several long years of breathless suspense; then in 1588 the Armada sailed and was utterly overwhelmed in one of the most complete disasters of the world's history. Thereupon the released energy of England broke out exultantly into still more impetuous achievement in almost every line of activity. The great literary period is taken by common consent to begin with the publication of Spenser's 'Shepherd's Calendar' in 1579, and to end in some sense at the death of Elizabeth in 1603, though in the drama, at least, it really continues many years longer.


Several general characteristics of Elizabethan literature and writers should be indicated at the outset.


The period has the great variety of almost unlimited creative force; it includes works of many kinds in both verse and prose, and ranges in spirit from the loftiest Platonic idealism or the most delightful romance to the level of very repulsive realism.


It was mainly dominated, however, by the spirit of romance.


It was full also of the spirit of dramatic action, as befitted an age whose restless enterprise was eagerly extending itself to every quarter of the globe.


In style it often exhibits romantic luxuriance, which sometimes takes the form of elaborate affectations of which the favorite 'conceit' is only the most apparent.


It was in part a period of experimentation, when the proper material and limits of literary forms were being determined, oftentimes by means of false starts and grandiose failures. In particular, many efforts were made to give prolonged poetical treatment to many subjects essentially prosaic, for example to systems of theological or scientific thought, or to the geography of all England.


It continued to be largely influenced by the literature of Italy, and to a less degree by those of France and Spain.


The literary spirit was all-pervasive, and the authors were men (not yet women) of almost every class, from distinguished courtiers, like Ralegh and Sidney, to the company of hack writers, who starved in garrets and hung about the outskirts of the bustling taverns.


PROSE FICTION.

The period saw the beginning, among other things, of English prose fiction of something like the later modern type. First appeared a series of collections of short tales chiefly translated from Italian authors, to which tales the Italian name 'novella' (novel) was applied. Most of the separate tales are crude or amateurish and have only historical interest, though as a class they furnished the plots for many Elizabethan dramas, including several of Shakespeare's. The most important collection was Painter's 'Palace of Pleasure,' in 1566. The earliest original, or partly original, English prose fictions to appear were handbooks of morals and manners in story form, and here the beginning was made by John Lyly, who is also of some importance in the history of the Elizabethan drama. In 1578 Lyly, at the age of twenty-five, came from Oxford to London, full of the enthusiasm of Renaissance learning, and evidently determined to fix himself as a new and dazzling star in the literary sky. In this ambition he achieved a remarkable and immediate success, by the publication of a little book entitled 'Euphues and His Anatomie of Wit.' 'Euphues' means 'the well-bred man,' and though there is a slight action, the work is mainly a series of moralizing disquisitions (mostly rearranged from Sir Thomas North's translation of 'The Dial of Princes' of the Spaniard Guevara) on love, religion, and conduct. Most influential, however, for the time-being, was Lyly's style, which is the most conspicuous English example of the later Renaissance craze, then rampant throughout Western Europe, for refining and beautifying the art of prose expression in a mincingly affected fashion. Witty, clever, and sparkling at all costs, Lyly takes especial pains to balance his sentences and clauses antithetically, phrase against phrase and often word against word, sometimes emphasizing the balance also by an exaggerated use of alliteration and assonance. A representative sentence is this: 'Although there be none so ignorant that doth not know, neither any so impudent that will not confesse, friendship to be the jewell of humaine joye; yet whosoever shall see this amitie grounded upon a little affection, will soone conjecture that it shall be dissolved upon a light occasion.' Others of Lyly's affectations are rhetorical questions, hosts of allusions to classical history, and literature, and an unfailing succession of similes from all the recondite knowledge that he can command, especially from the fantastic collection of fables which, coming down through the Middle Ages from the Roman writer Pliny, went at that time by the name of natural history and which we have already encountered in the medieval Bestiaries. Preposterous by any reasonable standard, Lyly's style, 'Euphuism,' precisely hit the Court taste of his age and became for a decade its most approved conversational dialect.


In literature the imitations of 'Euphues' which flourished for a while gave way to a series of romances inaugurated by the 'Arcadia' of Sir Philip Sidney. Sidney's brilliant position for a few years as the noblest representative of chivalrous ideals in the intriguing Court of Elizabeth is a matter of common fame, as is his death in 1586 at the age of thirty-two during the siege of Zutphen in Holland. He wrote 'Arcadia' for the amusement of his sister, the Countess of Pembroke, during a period of enforced retirement beginning in 1580, but the book was not published until ten years later. It is a pastoral romance, in the general style of Italian and Spanish romances of the earlier part of the century. The pastoral is the most artificial literary form in modern fiction. It may be said to have begun in the third century B. C. with the perfectly sincere poems of the Greek Theocritus, who gives genuine expression to the life of actual Sicilian shepherds. But with successive Latin, Medieval, and Renaissance writers in verse and prose the country characters and setting had become mere disguises, sometimes allegorical, for the expression of the very far from simple sentiments of the upper classes, and sometimes for their partly genuine longing, the outgrowth of sophisticated weariness and ennui, for rural naturalness. Sidney's very complicated tale of adventures in love and war, much longer than any of its successors, is by no means free from artificiality, but it finely mirrors his own knightly spirit and remains a permanent English classic. Among his followers were some of the better hack-writers of the time, who were also among the minor dramatists and poets, especially Robert Greene and Thomas Lodge. Lodge's 'Rosalynde,' also much influenced by Lyly, is in itself a pretty story and is noteworthy as the original of Shakespeare's 'As You Like It.'


Lastly, in the concluding decade of the sixteenth century, came a series of realistic stories depicting chiefly, in more or less farcical spirit, the life of the poorer classes. They belonged mostly to that class of realistic fiction which is called picaresque, from the Spanish word 'picaro,' a rogue, because it began in Spain with the 'Lazarillo de Tormes' of Diego de Mendoza, in 1553, and because its heroes are knavish serving-boys or similar characters whose unprincipled tricks and exploits formed the substance of the stories. In Elizabethan England it produced nothing of individual note.

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 𝙊𝙉𝙀 𝙒𝙊𝙍𝘿 𝙎𝙐𝘽𝙎𝙏𝙄𝙏𝙐𝙏𝙄𝙊𝙉 


1. 𝘼𝙪𝙙𝙞𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 – 𝙖 𝙣𝙪𝙢𝙗𝙚𝙧 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙚𝙤𝙥𝙡𝙚 𝙡𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙩𝙤 𝙖 𝙡𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙪𝙧𝙚.

2. 𝘼𝙡𝙩𝙧𝙪𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙨𝙞𝙙𝙚𝙧𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙝𝙖𝙥𝙥𝙞𝙣𝙚𝙨𝙨 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙬𝙚𝙡𝙡-𝙗𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙤𝙛 𝙤𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧𝙨 𝙛𝙞𝙧𝙨𝙩

3. 𝘼𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙙𝙤𝙚𝙨 𝙣𝙤𝙩 𝙗𝙚𝙡𝙞𝙚𝙫𝙚 𝙞𝙣 𝙂𝙤𝙙

4. 𝘼𝙣𝙩𝙝𝙧𝙤𝙥𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙨𝙩𝙪𝙙𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙚𝙫𝙤𝙡𝙪𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙤𝙛 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙙

5. 𝘼𝙪𝙩𝙤𝙘𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙮 – 𝙜𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙣𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙗𝙮 𝙤𝙣𝙚 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣

6. 𝘼𝙪𝙩𝙤𝙗𝙞𝙤𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙥𝙝𝙮 – 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙡𝙞𝙛𝙚 𝙝𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙤𝙧𝙮 𝙤𝙛 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣 𝙬𝙧𝙞𝙩𝙩𝙚𝙣 𝙗𝙮 𝙝𝙞𝙢𝙨𝙚𝙡𝙛

7. 𝘼𝙢𝙥𝙪𝙩𝙖𝙩𝙚 – 𝙩𝙤 𝙘𝙪𝙩 𝙤𝙛𝙛 𝙖 𝙥𝙖𝙧𝙩 𝙤𝙛 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣’𝙨 𝙗𝙤𝙙𝙮 𝙬𝙝𝙞𝙘𝙝 𝙞𝙨 𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙚𝙙

8. 𝘼𝙧𝙨𝙚𝙣𝙖𝙡 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙛𝙤𝙧 𝙖𝙢𝙢𝙪𝙣𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙬𝙚𝙖𝙥𝙤𝙣𝙨

9. 𝘼𝙧𝙘𝙝𝙞𝙫𝙚𝙨 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙬𝙝𝙚𝙧𝙚 𝙜𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙣𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙤𝙧 𝙥𝙪𝙗𝙡𝙞𝙘 𝙧𝙚𝙘𝙤𝙧𝙙𝙨 𝙖𝙧𝙚 𝙠𝙚𝙥𝙩

10. 𝘼𝙢𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙪𝙧 – 𝙖 𝙢𝙖𝙣 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙙𝙤𝙚𝙨 𝙖 𝙩𝙝𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙛𝙤𝙧 𝙥𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙨𝙪𝙧𝙚 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙣𝙤𝙩 𝙖𝙨 𝙖 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙛𝙚𝙨𝙨𝙞𝙤𝙣

11. 𝘼𝙧𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙤𝙘𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙮 – 𝙜𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙣𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙗𝙮 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙣𝙤𝙗𝙡𝙚𝙨

12. 𝘼𝙦𝙪𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙘 – 𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙢𝙖𝙡𝙨/𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙣𝙩𝙨 𝙚𝙧𝙚 𝙬𝙝𝙞𝙘𝙝 𝙡𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙞𝙣 𝙬𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙧

13. 𝘼𝙢𝙥𝙝𝙞𝙗𝙞𝙖𝙣 – 𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙢𝙖𝙡𝙨 𝙬𝙝𝙞𝙘𝙝 𝙡𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙗𝙤𝙩𝙝 𝙤𝙣 𝙡𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙨𝙚𝙖

14. 𝘼𝙢𝙗𝙞𝙙𝙚𝙭𝙩𝙚𝙧 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙘𝙖𝙣 𝙪𝙨𝙚 𝙚𝙞𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧 𝙝𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙬𝙞𝙩𝙝 𝙚𝙖𝙨𝙚

15. 𝘼𝙡𝙞𝙢𝙤𝙣𝙮 – 𝙖𝙡𝙡𝙤𝙬𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚 𝙥𝙖𝙞𝙙 𝙩𝙤 𝙬𝙞𝙛𝙚 𝙤𝙣 𝙡𝙚𝙜𝙖𝙡 𝙨𝙚𝙥𝙖𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

16. 𝘼𝙣𝙩𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 – 𝙖 𝙘𝙤𝙡𝙡𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙤𝙚𝙢𝙨

17. 𝘼𝙗𝙙𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 – 𝙫𝙤𝙡𝙪𝙣𝙩𝙖𝙧𝙮 𝙜𝙞𝙫𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙪𝙥 𝙤𝙛 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙧𝙤𝙣𝙚 𝙞𝙣 𝙛𝙖𝙫𝙤𝙧 𝙤𝙛 𝙨𝙤𝙢𝙚𝙤𝙣𝙚

18. 𝘼𝙧𝙗𝙞𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙤𝙧 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣, 𝙖𝙥𝙥𝙤𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙙 𝙗𝙮 𝙩𝙬𝙤 𝙥𝙖𝙧𝙩𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙩𝙤 𝙨𝙤𝙡𝙫𝙚 𝙖 𝙙𝙞𝙨𝙥𝙪𝙩𝙚

19. 𝘼𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙤𝙣𝙤𝙢𝙚𝙧 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙨𝙩𝙪𝙙𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙨𝙩𝙖𝙧𝙨, 𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙣𝙚𝙩𝙨 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙤𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙫𝙚𝙣𝙡𝙮 𝙗𝙤𝙙𝙞𝙚𝙨

20. 𝘼𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙚𝙧 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙨𝙩𝙪𝙙𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙡𝙪𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙫𝙚𝙣𝙡𝙮 𝙗𝙤𝙙𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙣 𝙝𝙪𝙢𝙖𝙣 𝙗𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙜𝙨

21. 𝘼𝙣𝙩𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 – 𝙖 𝙘𝙤𝙡𝙡𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙤𝙚𝙢𝙨

22. 𝘼𝙭𝙞𝙤𝙢 – 𝙖 𝙨𝙩𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙬𝙝𝙞𝙘𝙝 𝙞𝙨 𝙖𝙘𝙘𝙚𝙥𝙩𝙚𝙙 𝙖𝙨 𝙩𝙧𝙪𝙚 𝙬𝙞𝙩𝙝𝙤𝙪𝙩 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙤𝙛

23. 𝘼𝙜𝙚𝙣𝙙𝙖 – 𝙖 𝙡𝙞𝙨𝙩 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙙𝙞𝙣𝙜𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙗𝙪𝙨𝙞𝙣𝙚𝙨𝙨 𝙩𝙤 𝙗𝙚 𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙚𝙙 𝙖𝙩 𝙖 𝙢𝙚𝙚𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜

24. 𝘼𝙣𝙖𝙧𝙘𝙝𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙤𝙪𝙩 𝙩𝙤 𝙙𝙚𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙤𝙮 𝙖𝙡𝙡 𝙜𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙣𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚, 𝙡𝙖𝙬, 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙤𝙧𝙙𝙚𝙧

25. 𝘼𝙡𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙘 – 𝙖𝙣 𝙖𝙣𝙣𝙪𝙖𝙡 𝙘𝙖𝙡𝙚𝙣𝙙𝙖𝙧 𝙬𝙞𝙩𝙝 𝙥𝙤𝙨𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙨𝙩𝙖𝙧𝙨

26. 𝘽𝙞𝙜𝙖𝙢𝙮 – 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙥𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙘𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙖𝙫𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙩𝙬𝙤 𝙬𝙞𝙫𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙧 𝙝𝙪𝙨𝙗𝙖𝙣𝙙𝙨 𝙖𝙩 𝙖 𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙚

27. 𝘽𝙞𝙗𝙡𝙞𝙤𝙥𝙝𝙞𝙡𝙚 – 𝙖 𝙡𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙘𝙤𝙡𝙡𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙤𝙧 𝙤𝙛 𝙗𝙤𝙤𝙠𝙨

28. 𝘽𝙤𝙪𝙦𝙪𝙚𝙩 – 𝙖 𝙘𝙤𝙡𝙡𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙤𝙛 𝙛𝙡𝙤𝙬𝙚𝙧𝙨

29. 𝘽𝙪𝙧𝙚𝙖𝙪𝙘𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙮 – 𝙜𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙣𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙗𝙮 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙤𝙛𝙛𝙞𝙘𝙞𝙖𝙡𝙨

30. 𝘽𝙚𝙡𝙡𝙞𝙜𝙚𝙧𝙚𝙣𝙩 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣, 𝙣𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙩𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙞𝙨 𝙞𝙣𝙫𝙤𝙡𝙫𝙚𝙙 𝙞𝙣 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙬𝙖𝙧

31. 𝘽𝙞𝙚𝙣𝙣𝙞𝙖𝙡 – 𝙖𝙣 𝙚𝙫𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙬𝙝𝙞𝙘𝙝 𝙝𝙖𝙥𝙥𝙚𝙣𝙨 𝙤𝙣𝙘𝙚 𝙞𝙣 𝙩𝙬𝙤 𝙮𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙨

32. 𝘽𝙡𝙖𝙨𝙥𝙝𝙚𝙢𝙮 – 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙖𝙘𝙩 𝙤𝙛 𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙖𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙙𝙞𝙨𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙛𝙪𝙡𝙡𝙮 𝙖𝙗𝙤𝙪𝙩 𝙨𝙖𝙘𝙧𝙚𝙙 𝙩𝙝𝙞𝙣𝙜𝙨

33. 𝘾𝙧𝙚𝙘𝙝𝙚 – 𝙖 𝙣𝙪𝙧𝙨𝙚𝙧𝙮 𝙬𝙝𝙚𝙧𝙚 𝙘𝙝𝙞𝙡𝙙𝙧𝙚𝙣 𝙖𝙧𝙚 𝙘𝙖𝙧𝙚𝙙 𝙛𝙤𝙧 𝙬𝙝𝙞𝙡𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙞𝙧 𝙥𝙖𝙧𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙨 𝙖𝙧𝙚 𝙖𝙩 𝙬𝙤𝙧𝙠

34. 𝘾𝙤𝙨𝙢𝙤𝙥𝙤𝙡𝙞𝙩𝙖𝙣 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙧𝙚𝙜𝙖𝙧𝙙𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙬𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙚 𝙬𝙤𝙧𝙡𝙙 𝙖𝙨 𝙝𝙞𝙨 𝙘𝙤𝙪𝙣𝙩𝙧𝙮

35. 𝘾𝙝𝙖𝙪𝙛𝙛𝙚𝙪𝙧 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙚𝙢𝙥𝙡𝙤𝙮𝙚𝙙 𝙩𝙤 𝙙𝙧𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙖 𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙤𝙧 𝙘𝙖𝙧

36. 𝘾𝙪𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙤𝙧 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣 𝙞𝙣 𝙘𝙝𝙖𝙧𝙜𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙖 𝙢𝙪𝙨𝙚𝙪𝙢

37. 𝘾𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙫𝙤𝙧𝙤𝙪𝙨 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙡𝙞𝙫𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙣 𝙛𝙡𝙚𝙨𝙝

38. 𝘾𝙖𝙣𝙣𝙞𝙗𝙖𝙡 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙛𝙚𝙚𝙙𝙨 𝙤𝙣 𝙝𝙪𝙢𝙖𝙣 𝙛𝙡𝙚𝙨𝙝

39. 𝘾𝙤𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙢𝙥𝙤𝙧𝙖𝙧𝙞𝙚𝙨 – 𝙗𝙚𝙡𝙤𝙣𝙜𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙩𝙤 𝙤𝙧 𝙡𝙞𝙫𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙖𝙩 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙨𝙖𝙢𝙚 𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙚

40. 𝘾𝙡𝙤𝙖𝙠𝙧𝙤𝙤𝙢 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙛𝙤𝙧 𝙡𝙪𝙜𝙜𝙖𝙜𝙚 𝙖𝙩 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙧𝙖𝙞𝙡𝙬𝙖𝙮 𝙨𝙩𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

41. 𝘾𝙮𝙣𝙤𝙨𝙪𝙧𝙚 – 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙘𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙧𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙖𝙩𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

42. 𝘾𝙤𝙣𝙣𝙤𝙞𝙨𝙨𝙚𝙪𝙧 – 𝙖 𝙘𝙧𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙟𝙪𝙙𝙜𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙖𝙣𝙮 𝙖𝙧𝙩 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙘𝙧𝙖𝙛𝙩

43. 𝘾𝙧𝙪𝙨𝙖𝙙𝙚 – 𝙖 𝙧𝙚𝙡𝙞𝙜𝙞𝙤𝙪𝙨 𝙬𝙖𝙧

44. 𝘾𝙝𝙤𝙧𝙚𝙤𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙥𝙝𝙚𝙧 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙩𝙚𝙖𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙨 𝙙𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙞𝙣𝙜

45. 𝘾𝙖𝙘𝙤𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙥𝙝𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙗𝙖𝙙 𝙞𝙣 𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙡𝙡𝙞𝙣𝙜𝙨

46. 𝘾𝙖𝙡𝙡𝙞𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙥𝙝𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙬𝙧𝙞𝙩𝙚𝙨 𝙗𝙚𝙖𝙪𝙩𝙞𝙛𝙪𝙡 𝙝𝙖𝙣𝙙𝙬𝙧𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜

47. 𝘾𝙮𝙣𝙞𝙘 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙨𝙣𝙚𝙚𝙧𝙨 𝙖𝙩 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙖𝙞𝙢𝙨 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙗𝙚𝙡𝙞𝙚𝙛𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙞𝙨 𝙛𝙚𝙡𝙡𝙤𝙬 𝙢𝙚𝙣

48. 𝘾𝙤𝙣𝙫𝙖𝙡𝙚𝙨𝙘𝙚𝙣𝙩 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙧𝙚𝙘𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙡𝙩𝙝

49. 𝘾𝙖𝙫𝙖𝙡𝙧𝙮 – 𝙨𝙤𝙡𝙙𝙞𝙚𝙧𝙨, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙛𝙞𝙜𝙝𝙩 𝙤𝙣 𝙝𝙤𝙧𝙨𝙚𝙗𝙖𝙘𝙠

50. 𝘾𝙖𝙧𝙙𝙞𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙞𝙖𝙡𝙞𝙨𝙩 𝙞𝙣 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙩 𝙙𝙞𝙨𝙚𝙖𝙨𝙚𝙨

51. 𝘾𝙖𝙧𝙩𝙤𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙥𝙝𝙚𝙧 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙙𝙧𝙖𝙬𝙨 𝙢𝙖𝙥𝙨

52. 𝘿𝙤𝙧𝙢𝙞𝙩𝙤𝙧𝙮 – 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙨𝙡𝙚𝙚𝙥𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙧𝙤𝙤𝙢𝙨 𝙬𝙞𝙩𝙝 𝙨𝙚𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙖𝙡 𝙗𝙚𝙙𝙨 𝙚𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙞𝙖𝙡𝙡𝙮 𝙞𝙣 𝙖 𝙘𝙤𝙡𝙡𝙚𝙜𝙚 𝙤𝙧 𝙞𝙣𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙩𝙪𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

53. 𝘿𝙧𝙖𝙬𝙣 – 𝙖 𝙜𝙖𝙢𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙪𝙡𝙩𝙨 𝙣𝙚𝙞𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧 𝙞𝙣 𝙫𝙞𝙘𝙩𝙤𝙧𝙮 𝙣𝙤𝙧 𝙞𝙣 𝙙𝙚𝙛𝙚𝙖𝙩

54. 𝙀𝙡𝙚𝙜𝙮 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙤𝙚𝙢 𝙤𝙛 𝙡𝙖𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

55. 𝙀𝙥𝙞𝙩𝙖𝙥𝙝 – 𝙬𝙤𝙧𝙙𝙨 𝙬𝙝𝙞𝙘𝙝 𝙖𝙧𝙚 𝙞𝙣𝙨𝙘𝙧𝙞𝙗𝙚𝙙 𝙤𝙣 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙫𝙚 𝙤𝙧 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙩𝙤𝙢𝙗 𝙞𝙣 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮 𝙤𝙛 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙗𝙪𝙧𝙞𝙚𝙙

56. 𝙀𝙥𝙝𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙧𝙖𝙡 – 𝙡𝙖𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙤𝙣𝙚 𝙙𝙖𝙮

57. 𝙀𝙛𝙛𝙚𝙢𝙞𝙣𝙖𝙩𝙚 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙬𝙤𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙨𝙝

58. 𝙀𝙢𝙞𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙩 – 𝙖 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙫𝙚𝙨 𝙝𝙞𝙨 𝙤𝙬𝙣 𝙘𝙤𝙪𝙣𝙩𝙧𝙮 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙜𝙤𝙚𝙨 𝙩𝙤 𝙡𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙞𝙣 𝙖𝙣𝙤𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧

59. 𝙀𝙙𝙞𝙗𝙡𝙚 – 𝙛𝙞𝙩 𝙩𝙤 𝙗𝙚 𝙚𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙣

60. 𝙀𝙜𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙨𝙢 – 𝙥𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙘𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙩𝙖𝙡𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙩𝙤𝙤 𝙢𝙪𝙘𝙝 𝙖𝙗𝙤𝙪𝙩 𝙤𝙣𝙚𝙨𝙚𝙡𝙛

61. 𝙀𝙣𝙘𝙮𝙘𝙡𝙤𝙥𝙚𝙙𝙞𝙖 – 𝙖 𝙗𝙤𝙤𝙠 𝙩𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙩𝙖𝙞𝙣𝙨 𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙤𝙣 𝙫𝙖𝙧𝙞𝙤𝙪𝙨 𝙨𝙪𝙗𝙟𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙨

62. 𝙀𝙥𝙞𝙘𝙪𝙧𝙚 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙙𝙚𝙫𝙤𝙩𝙚𝙙 𝙩𝙤 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙥𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙨𝙪𝙧𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙚𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙙𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙜

63. 𝙁𝙡𝙤𝙧𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙙𝙚𝙖𝙡𝙨 𝙞𝙣 𝙛𝙡𝙤𝙬𝙚𝙧𝙨

64. 𝙁𝙖𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙙𝙞𝙤𝙪𝙨 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙮 -𝙨𝙚𝙡𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙞𝙣 𝙤𝙣𝙚’𝙨 𝙩𝙖𝙨𝙩𝙚

65. 𝙁𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙤𝙧 𝘽𝙞𝙜𝙤𝙩 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙞𝙨 𝙛𝙞𝙡𝙡𝙚𝙙 𝙬𝙞𝙩𝙝 𝙚𝙭𝙘𝙚𝙨𝙨𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙢𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙖𝙠𝙚𝙣 𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙝𝙪𝙨𝙞𝙖𝙨𝙢 𝙞𝙣 𝙧𝙚𝙡𝙞𝙜𝙞𝙤𝙪𝙨 𝙢𝙖𝙩𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙨

66. 𝙁𝙖𝙩𝙖𝙡 – 𝙘𝙖𝙪𝙨𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙙𝙚𝙖𝙩𝙝

67. 𝙁𝙖𝙩𝙖𝙡𝙞𝙨𝙩 – 𝙤𝙣𝙚, 𝙬𝙝𝙤 𝙗𝙚𝙡𝙞𝙚𝙫𝙚𝙨 𝙞𝙣 𝙛𝙖𝙩𝙚

68. 𝙁𝙖𝙘𝙨𝙞𝙢𝙞𝙡𝙚 – 𝙖𝙣 𝙚𝙭𝙖𝙘𝙩 𝙘𝙤𝙥𝙮 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙖𝙣𝙙𝙬𝙧𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜, 𝙥𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙚𝙩𝙘.

***

 TYPES OF NOVEL 


Realistic Novel:

                                A fictional attempt to give the effect of realism. This sort of novel is sometimes called a novel of manner. A realistic novel can be characterized by its complex characters with mixed  motives that are rooted in social class and operate according to highly developed social structure. The characters in realistic novel interact with other characters and undergo plausible and everyday experiences.


Examples: Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher, Looking for Alaska by John Green.


Picaresque Novel:

                                A picaresque novel  relates the adventures of an eccentric or disreputable hero in episodic form. The genre gets its name from the Spanish word picaro, or "rogue."


Examples: Rudyard Kipling's Kim (1901), Henry Fielding’s The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749),


Historical Novel:

                                A Historical novel is a novel set in a period earlier than that of the writing.


Examples: Thackeray's Vanity Fair, Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities, George Eliot's Romola and Charles Kingsley's Westward Ho!


Epistolary Novel:

                                Epistolary fiction is a popular genre where the narrative is told via a series of documents. The word epistolary comes from Latin where ‘epistola’ means a letter. Letters are the most common basis for epistolary novels but diary entries are also popular


Examples: Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa, Bram Stoker’s Dracula, Alice Walker’s The Color Purple and Bridget Jones’ Diary.


Bildungsroman:

                                German terms that indicates a growth. This fictional autobiography concerned with the development of the protagonist’s mind, spirit, and characters from childhood to adulthood.


Examples: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, David Copperfield by Charles Dickens, The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann etc.


Gothic Novel:

                                Gothic novel includes terror, mystery, horror, thriller, supernatural, doom, death, decay, old haunted buildings with ghosts and so on.


Examples: Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, John William Polidori’s The Vampyre, Bram Stoker’s Dracula, The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole,


Autobiographical Novel:

                                An autobiographical novel is a novel based on the life of the author.


Examples: Charles Dickens’ David Coppefield, Great Expectations, D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers, Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar, Ralph Ellison ‘s Invisible Man, Maya Angelou’ s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Virginia Wolfe’s The Light House etc.


Satirical Novel:

                                Satire is loosely defined as art that ridicules a specific topic in order to provoke readers into changing their opinion of it. By attacking what they see as human folly, satirists usually imply their own opinions on how the thing being attacked can be improved.


Examples: George Orwell’s Animal Farm, Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travel, Joseph Heller’s Catch 22, Mark Twin’s The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn,


Allegorical Novel:

                                An allegory is a story with two levels of meaning- surface meaning and symbolic meaning. The symbolic meaning of an allegory can be political or religious, historical or philosophical.


Examples: John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress , William Golding's The Lord of the Flies, Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene etc.


Regional Novel:

                                A religious novel is a novel that is set against the background of a particular area.


Examples: Novels of Charles Dickens George Eliot etc.


Novella:

                                A novella is a short, narrative, prose fiction. As a literary genre, the novella’s origin lay in the early Renaissance literary work of the Italians and the French. As the etymology suggests, novellas originally were news of town and country life worth repeating for amusement and edification.


Examples: Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness,


Detective Fiction:

                                Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—either professional or amateur—investigates a crime, often murder.


Examples: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’ A Study in Scarlet ( Sherlock Holmes), Satyajit Roy’s Sonar Kella (Feluda), G. K. Chesterton’s The Blue Cross (Father Brown), Dr. Nihar Ranjan Gupta’s Kalo Bhramar (Kiriti)


The Intellectual Novel

:

                                These sort of novelists attempted to explore the intellectual responses of the intelligentia to the world. Characteristically, their novel displays the clash of ideas and intellectual verification of knowledge., value and response, a diminishing faith on the cosmic significance of existence,  argument and counter argument in discussion, separation of concept of love and sex, conversation without communication, and a dehumanizing effect of disillusionment in the 20th century.


Examples:  Graham Greene’s The Power and the Glory, The Heart of the Matter, Elizabeth Bowen’s The Hotel, The House in Paris.


Stream of Consciousness Novel or Psychological Novel:

                                Psychological novels are works of fiction that treat the internal life of the protagonist (or several or all characters) as much as (if not more than) the external forces that make up the plot. The phrase “Stream of Consciousness” was coined by William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890), to describe the flow of thought of the waking mind.


Examples: Virginia Wolfe’s To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dolloway, James Joyce’s Ulysses, D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow.


Roman á these/ Social Fiction/ Political Novel:

                                The genre focussed on possible development of societies, very often dominated by totalitarian governments. This type of novels must have social and political message. The term generally refers to fiction in Europe and the Soviet Union reacting to Communist rule.


Examples: George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four, Huxley’s Brave New World etc.


Prose Romance:

                                This is a novel that is often set in the historical past with a plot that emphasizes adventure and an atmosphere removed from reality. The characters in a prose romance are either sharply drawn as villains or heroes, masters or victims; while the protagonist is isolated from the society.


Examples: The Story of the Pillow by Shen Jiji, and The Governor of the Southern Tributary State by LiGongzuo.


Novel of Incident:

                                In a novel of incident the narrative focuses on what the protagonist will do next and how the story will turn out.

Examples: The Wizard of Oz, Star Wars etc.


Novel of Character:

                                A novel of character focuses on the protagonist’s motives for what he/she does and how he/she turns out.


Examples: Jane Austen’s Emma.


Roman á clef:

                                French term for a novel with a key, imaginary events with real people disguised as fictional characters.


Examples: The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath, Animal Farm by George Orwell, On the Road by Jack Kerouac etc.


Dime Novel:

                                Dime novels were short works of fiction, usually focused on the dramatic exploits of a single heroic character. As evidenced by their name, dime novels were sold for a dime (sometimes a nickel), and featured colourful cover illustrations. They were bound in paper, making them light, portable, and somewhat ephemeral.


Example: Dime novels are, at least in spirit, the antecedent of today's mass market paperbacks, comic books, and even television shows and movies based on the dime novel genres. Buffalo Ball.


Hypertext Novel:

                                Hypertext fiction is a genre of electronic literature, characterized by the use of hypertext links which provide a new context for non-linearity in literature and reader interaction. The reader typically chooses links to move from one node of text to the next, and in this fashion arranges a story from a deeper pool of potential stories. Its spirit can also be seen in interactive fiction.


Examples: James Joyce's Ulysses (1922), Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves (2000), Enrique Jardiel Poncela's La Tournée de Dios (1932), Jorge Luis Borges' The Garden of Forking Paths (1941), Vladimir Nabokov's Pale Fire (1962) and Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963; translated as Hopscotch) etc.


Sentimental Novel:

                                The sentimental novel or the novel of sensibility is an 18th-century literary genre which celebrates the emotional and intellectual concepts of sentiment, sentimentalism, and sensibility.


Examples: Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1766), Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy (1759–67), Sentimental Journey (1768), Henry Brooke's The Fool of Quality (1765–70), Henry Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling (1771). Continental example is  Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Julie.


Utopian Novel:

   

                                A utopia is a community or society possessing highly desirable or perfect qualities. It is a common literary theme, especially in speculative fiction and science fiction.


Examples: Utopia by Thomas Moore, Laws (360 BC) by Plato, New Atlantis (1627) by Sir Francis Bacon, Robinson Crusoe (1719) by Daniel Defoe, Gulliver's Travels (1726) by Jonathan Swift.

Graphic Novel:

                                Graphic novels are, simply defined, book-length comics. Sometimes they tell a single, continuous narrative from first page to last; sometimes they are collections of shorter stories or individual comic strips. Comics are sequential visual art, usually with text, that are often told in a series of rectangular panels.1 Despite the name, not all comics are funny. Many comics and graphic novels emphasize drama, adventure, character development, striking visuals, politics, or romance over laugh-out-loud comedy.


Examples: Frank Miller’s Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, The Fantastic Four and X-Men etc.


Science Fiction (Sci-Fi):

                                Science fiction is a genre of speculative fiction dealing with imaginative concepts such as futuristic settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, time travel, faster than light travel, parallel universes and extraterrestrial life. Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations.


Examples: The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, The Time Machine.


Cult or Coterie Novel:

                                Cult novels often come from the fringes, they often represent countercultural perspectives, they often experiment with form.


Examples: Speedboat by Renata Adler, Sddhartha by Herman Hesse,


Pulp Fiction:

                                Term originated from the magazines of the first half of the 20th century which were printed on cheap "pulp" paper and published fantastic, escapist fiction for the general entertainment of the mass audiences. The pulp fiction era provided a breeding ground for creative talent which would influence all forms of entertainment for decades to come. The hardboiled detective and science fiction genres were created by the freedom that the pulp fiction magazines provided.


Examples: The Spider, Doc Savage, Blood N Thunder etc.


Erotic Novel:

                                Erotic romance novels have romance as the main focus of the plot line, and they are characterized by strong, often explicit, sexual content.[2] The books can contain elements of any of the other romance subgenres, such as paranormal elements, chick lit, hen lit, historical fiction, etc. Erotic romance is classed as pornography .

Examples:  His To Possess by Opal Carew, On Dublin Street by Samantha Young.


Roman fleuve:

                                A novel sequence is a set or series of novels which share common themes, characters, or settings, but where each novel has its own title and free-standing storyline, and can thus be read independently or out of sequence.


Examples: Honoré de Balzac’s Comédie humaine and Émile Zola’s Rougon-Macquart,


Anti-Novel:

                                An antinovel is any experimental work of fiction that avoids the familiar conventions of the novel, and instead establishes its own conventions.


Examples:  Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy.


Interactive Novel:

                                The interactive novel is a form of interactive web fiction. In an interactive novel, the reader chooses where to go next in the novel by clicking on a piece of hyperlinked text, such as a page number, a character, or a direction.


Examples: J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Series.


Fantasy Novel:

                                Stories involving paranormal magic and terrible monsters have existed in spoken forms before the advent of printed literature.


Examples: J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit, C. S. Lewis’ The Chronicles of Narnia.


Adventure Novel:

                                Adventure fiction is a genre of fiction in which an adventure, an exciting undertaking involving risk and physical danger, forms the main storyline.


Examples:  Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe.


Children’s Novel:

                                Children's novels are narrative fiction books written for children, distinct from collections of stories and picture books.


Examples: The Christmas Mystery, Charlotte's Web by E.B. White, James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl.


Dystopian Novel:

                                A dystopia is an unpleasant (typically repressive) society, often propagandized as being utopian.

Examples: Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, The Giver by Lois Lowry etc.


Mystery Novel:

                                The mystery genre is a type of fiction in which a detective, or other professional, solves a crime or series of crimes. It can take the form of a novel or short story. This genre may also be called detective or crime novels.


Examples: Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code.

***

 1.Geoffrey Chaucer = The Father of English Literature

2.Geoffrey Chaucer = The Father of English Poetry

3.Geoffrey Chaucer = The Father of English Language

4.Geoffrey Chaucer = The Morning Star of the Renaissance

5.Geoffrey Chaucer = The First National Poet

6.Venerable Bede = The Father of English Learning.

7.Venerable Bede = The Father of English History

8.King Alfred the Great = The Father of English Prose

9.Aeschylus = The Father of Tragedy

10.Nicholas Udall = The First English Comedy Writer

11.Edmund Spenser = The Poet’s poet (by Charles Lamb)

12.Edmund Spenser = The Child of Renaissance

13.Edmund Spenser = The Bridge between Renaissance and Reformation

14.Gutenberg = The Father of Printing

15.William Caxton = Father of English Press

16.Francis Bacon = The Father of English Essay

17.John Wycliffe = The Morning Star of the Reformation

18.Christopher Marlowe = The Father of English Tragedy

19.William Shakespeare = Bard of Avon

20.William Shakespeare = The Father of English Drama

21.William Shakespeare = Sweet Swan of Avon

22.William Shakespeare = The Bard

23.Robert Burns = The Bard of Ayrshire (Scotland)

24.Robert Burns = The National Poet of Scotland

25.Robert Burns = Rabbie

26.Robert Burns = The Ploughman Poet

27.William Dunber = The Chaucer of Scotland

28.John Dryden = Father of English criticism

29.William of Newbury = Father of Historical Criticism

30.John Donne = Poet of love

31.John Donne = Metaphysical poet

32.John Milton = Epic poet

33.John Milton = The great master of verse

34.John Milton = Lady of the Christ College

35.John Milton = Poet of the Devil’s Party

36.John Milton = Master of the Grand style

38.John Milton = The Blind Poet of England

39.Alexander Pope = Mock heroic poet

40.William Wordsworth = The Worshipper of Nature

41.William Wordsworth = The High Priest of Nature

42.William Wordsworth = The Poet of Nature

43.William Wordsworth = The Lake Poet

44.William Wordsworth = Poet of Childhood

45.William Wordsworth = Egotistical Sublime

46.Samuel Taylor Coleridge = The Poet of Supernaturalism

47.Samuel Taylor Coleridge = Opium Eater

48.Coleridge & Wordsworth = The Father of Romanticism

49.Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey = Lake Poets

50.Lord Byron = The Rebel Poet

51.Percy Bysshe Shelley = The Revolutionary Poet

52.Percy Bysshe Shelley = Poet of hope and

regeneration

53.John Keats = Poet of Beauty

54.William Blake = The Mystic Poet

55.John Keats = Chameleon Poet

56.Lord Alfred Tennyson = The Representative of the Victorian Era

57.George Bernard Shaw = The greatest modern dramatist

58.George Bernard Shaw = The Iconoclast

59.Jane Austen = Anti-romantic in Romantic age

60.Lindley Murray = Father of English Grammar

61.James Joyce = Father of English Stream of Conscious Novel

62.Edgar Allen Poe = Father of English Mystery play

63.Edgar Allen Poe = The Father of English Short Story

64.Henry Fielding = The Father of English Novel

65.Samuel Johnson = Father of English one Act Play

66.Sigmund Freud = A great Psycho-analyst

67.Robert Frost = The Poet of Terror

68.Francesco Petrarch = The Father of Sonnet (Italian)

69.Francesco Petrarch = The Father of Humanism

70.Sir Thomas Wyatt = The Father of English Sonnet

71.Henry Louis Vivian Derozio = The Father of Indian-Anglican Sonnet

72.William Hazlitt = Critic’s Critic

73.Charles Lamb = The Essay of Elia

74.Arthur Miller = Mulk Raj Anand of America

75.Addison = The voice of humanist Puritanism

76.Emerson = The Seneca of America

77.Mother Teresa = The Boon of Heaven

78.Thomas Nash = Young Juvenile

79.Thomas Decker = Fore-runner of Humorist

80.Homer = The Father of Epic Poetry

81.Homer = The Blind Poet

82.Henrick Ibsen = Father of Modern theatre

83.Rabindranath Tagore = Indian National Poet

84.Nissim Ezekiel = The Father of Indian English

***

 

Some Influential Women Authors in the History of English Literature. 


Here is a short introduction about each author according to the photo.


1. Maya Angelou


She is arguably the most famous African-American autobiographer and poet in history. Angelou broke the mold when she wrote her six autobiographical volumes in a nontraditional structure that completely changed the genre. Angelou opened up to readers and shared her controversial life stories without shame or censorship. Her candidness and unique literary style pushed the boundaries for all female writers and changed the face of autobiographies forever.


2. JK Rowling


This British author is one of the most widely read female authors in history. Her popular Harry Potter series combined whimsical fantasy and inspired a generation of children to get excited about reading. Her books ahve also inspired readers on a social, moral, and political base. Even her personal story of rags to riches has influenced readers to never give up on their dreams.


3. Alice Walker


The author of “The Color Purple” holds the title of the first African-American woman to win a Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Walker’s writing career and personal life has mostly centered on race and gender ineqaulity. Her written work and political involvement have made her a respected figure amoung African-Americans and female readers around the world.


4. SE Hinton


American novelist S.E. Hinton is best known for her young adult books, most notably, “The Outsiders”. Hinton began writing “The Outsiders” at 15 years old and it was published when she was 18 years old. Hinton became a household name and instant success with “The Outsiders”, which still sells more than 500,000 copies each year. Hinton has made a lasting impression with her literary work that effectively connects readers to the emotions and experiences of teenagers.


5. Agatha Christie


British crime writer who produced popular novels, plays and short stories. Christie is the best-selling female author of all time and the most translated individual author. Christie’s commercial success and public appreciation came from her masterful writing skills and ability to build a suspenseful whodunit plot with well-developed characters. Not only did Christie pave the way for crime writers, but she also inspired female authors of all genres to follow suit.


6. Laura Ingalls Wilder


Most widely known for writing the Little House series of books, specifically the Little House on the Prairie. Wilder based these novels on her childhood and growing up in a pioneer family. Wilder’s compelling stories and mastery of literary techniques helped set the precedent for future children’s books.


7. Harper Lee


American writer best known for her 1960 Pulitzer Prize winning novel To Kill a Mockingbird. It is Lee’s only published book, but the critically-acclaimed bestseller made quite an impact on its own. Much of the book is autobiographical and details what Lee saw as a child growing up in the South. The powerful story deals with racial inequality and injustice in the Deep South.


8. Jane Austen


Jane Austen is best known for her popular romantic fiction novels, such as Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice and Emma. Austen’s work is the focus of academic study for scholars and critics because of its historical context and mastery of literary techniques. Austen greatly influenced English literature with her use of literary realism, social commentary and techniques that told the compelling stories of 18th century and 19th century women.


9. Emily Dickinson


Emily Dickinson was an influential poet whose style was unlike anyone else’s. Dickinson was an innovator, who used unconventional techniques, such as short lines, slant rhyme and unusual capitalization and punctuation that garnered both attention and criticism. During the late 19th and early 20th century, critics denounced Dickinson’s individual style and literary prowess, but later praised her originality and talent as a pre-modernist poet.


10. Louisa May Alcott


American author Louisa May Alcott was best known for her novel Little Women. Alcott received critical acclaim for her literary work, as well as her involvement in various reform movements, including women’s rights and ending slavery. Through her professional and personal life, she has inspired and empowered women of all ages to be independent and follow their dreams regardless of what society says.


11. Mary Shelley


A British writer best known for the widely-read Gothic novel Frankenstein. Shelley pushed the boundaries of traditional Romanticism and Gothic fiction when she developed her own brand of the artistic movement that criticized individualism and challenged the traditional 18th century school of thought. Shelley’s work has been at the forefront of feminist literary criticism and academic study for decades.


12. George Eliot


Born Mary Anne Evans in 1819, she wrote Middlemarch, Daniel Deronda, and Silas Marner, a threesome that must rank with any of the finer achievements of realism in fiction. Yet her breadth of character and theme took on so much more. This is a writer that had common sense, verve and intricate knowledge about the unfolding of human events. Eliot’s ouvre is astonishingly mature for its time, and remains readable today.


13. Emily Bronte

She wrote only one book during her short life, but it would forever change the landscape of English Literature, and capture women’s hearts across the world. Wuthering Heights.


14. Charlotte Bronte


Best known for her novel Jane Eyre, which was written under her pen name Currer Bell. Although she had a small number of published works, Bronte made a significant impact in both the literary world and society by highlighting the daily struggles of oppressed women in her written works.


15. Virginia Woolf


A literary genius who broke the mold for 20th century novelists. The modernist was known for her experimental fiction writing and influential feminist essays that enlightened readers on Britain’s class and gender differences. Woolf’s work has impacted readers, writers, historians, scholars and all those who’ve studied her innovative work and mastery of the English language.


16. Harriet Beecher Stowe


Stowe changed history with her influential anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Not only was Uncle Tom’s Cabin the best-selling novel of the 19th century, but it also played an important role in the development of the Civil War. Stowe was a progressive thinker and fierce abolitionist, who wrote about real life issues of inequality and stereotypes and had the power to open up millions of Americans’ hearts.


17. Ayn Rand


Ayn Rand was a Russian writer who is most widely known for her two best-selling novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged. Rand’s written works were heavily based on her political views and emphasis on individual rights. Her books received vast amounts of praise and criticism, but were commercially successful, nonetheless. Rand’s eye-opening work has impacted various political, social and academic fields and encouraged readers to re-evaluate their political and ethical views.


18. Margaret Mitchell


Best known for writing the American classic Gone With the Wind. The novel was an instant success, selling more than a million copies in the first six months. Mitchell won the Pulitzer Prize for her wildly popular novel. Mitchell changed history when she wrote arguably the best romantic novel of all time. Not only did the story capture the hearts of millions of readers worldwide, but Mitchell’s masterful use of symbolism and treatment of archetypes made it truly original.


19. Edith Wharton


Edith Wharton was an American novelist and short story writer, who is most famous for her Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Age of Innocence. Wharton was the first woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for literature. She was fluent in French and several other languages, and many of her published works are printed in both French and English. Wharton is praised for achieving both social satire and criticism in her work, while mastering the art of humor.


20. Zora Neale Hurston


An American folklorist, anthropologist, and author during the time of the Harlem Renaissance. Of Hurston’s four novels and more than 50 published short stories, plays, and essays, she is best known for her 1937 novel “Their Eyes Were Watching God.”

***

 

William Wordsworth Biography


William Wordsworth was born on April 7, 1770, in Cockermouth, Cumberland, a small quiet market town in northwest England, on the edge of the Lake District. Thus from the very beginning he was associated with that region which he loved more than any other, and except for brief sojourns in Britain, Germany, and Italy, he never left his beloved Lake Country. He died in 1850 and was buried at Grasmere, Westmoreland, about twenty-five miles from his birthplace.


His personal history was just about as uneventful as his lack of movement would lead one to expect. The excitement in his life took place on the level of intellect; he found ideas more exciting than any other thing. Though he appreciated the intimacy of a small circle of friends, he consistently avoided any larger portion of society. Like the American Thoreau, his philosophy was one rooted in simplicity of living, and like Thoreau, he sought always to practice it. In fact, he preferred humble surroundings and a minimum of personal effects. From his childhood onward, he invariably strove for economy, frequently from necessity, but always because of principle.


He was born one of five children to a modest land lawyer. Wordsworth's only sister, Dorothy was one year his junior. She never married because she preferred to become the poet's lifelong companion and informal biographer. William reportedly demonstrated no childish precocity. He was self-willed and often displayed such a violent temper that his mother confided she was worried more about his future than the destinies of her other children. His mother died in 1779, evidently of a cold.


Soon afterward, the poet and his elder brother were sent to the small, free grammar school at Hawkshead, near Windermere. He was not an outstanding student, but among his more rustic classmates he seems to have shone somewhat. He lodged and boarded with a childless landlady, and she seems to have come in many ways to replace his lost mother in his affections. For years he regarded her cottage as home and considered it a welcome relief from the establishments of his stern relatives. The cottage was a mere stone's throw from the open fields.


In 1783, his father died, and the young Wordsworth became an orphan at thirteen. Before his death, the father named his own brother and his wife's elder brother as joint guardians of the children, and it was to the latter that the four orphaned boys were sent. Their uncle proved to be hostile and insensitive toward them, never ceased to remind them of their poverty, and seems even to have encouraged the servants to neglect and abuse his charges. William appears to have been particularly disliked by master and servant alike.


As Wordsworth grew older, he decided he might like to become a lawyer. Accordingly, in October 1787, he left his uncle's home in Penrith and went to attend St. John's College, Cambridge. His apparent early enthusiasm for Cambridge was not long in turning to apathy. He found teachers and students shallow and the course of study inconsequential; he openly proclaimed that he could not stand the regimentation. He did desire admission to the circles representing the gentry and intelligentsia at Cambridge, but they would have none of him because he was poor and quite common.


During his vacations, he spent his time visiting his former landlady at Hawkshead and, with his sister Dorothy, covering some of Derbyshire and Yorkshire on foot. At the end of his junior year, he abandoned his earlier idea of applying for a fellowship. He and a schoolmate left on a three-month walking tour through France and on into the Alps and got as far as Lakes Maggiore and Como. Here he gathered the impressions which were to crystallize in his first volume of poems.


He took his B.A. degree in 1791 and soon after made one of a series of visits to London. He next considered becoming a clergyman. However, after a year of postgraduate work, he decided to go to France, where he intended to learn more of the language and customs of France with the intention of becoming a tutor. He stayed only four days in Paris before he moved on to Orléans to live among the natives. He shared lodgings with several members of the cavalry and probably through them was introduced to Paul Vallon, a clerk, and then to the latter's sister, Marie Anne ("Annette"). She was nearly four years older than the poet; she was a Royalist, and he was a self-styled "democrat," she was a Catholic and he a non-practicing Protestant; but love seems to have leveled all things. When she returned to her family home at Blois, farther south along the Loire, Wordsworth went with her. In the spring, she announced that she was going to have a baby and that the poet was the father. He meantime had been planning to return to England that spring (1792) to engage in some kind of literary activity or finally to take orders. The natural thing would have been for the two young people to marry, and from all indications, they were perfectly willing. The poet acknowledged (by proxy) the baby — a girl, Caroline — as his own at her baptism. But there were serious parental objections to nuptials.


At Orléans and Blois, Wordsworth was plunged into the midst of the intrigue that surrounded the French Revolution (1789-99). He was at first completely indifferent to the Revolution and its ideals. Slowly, however, he began to fancy himself a patriot and spoke up for the revolutionary cause. While at Blois, he had the good fortune to meet Michel Beaupuy, a captain, whom he met possibly through the local revolutionary club which the young Englishman had just joined. No other man except Samuel Taylor Coleridge had as great an influence on Wordsworth.


When King Louis XVI was beheaded on January 21, 1793, Wordsworth was back in England. Though the poet was compelled to defend the French Reign of Terror outwardly, his inner convictions were slowly altering, and he underwent a serious spiritual malaise, during which he seemed to be finally and completely without desire or design. As one biographer says, "largely because of what he underwent between 1792 and 1795, he became one of the voices of his age."


His relatives would now have none of him; they considered him an anarchist, as well as a disbeliever and an idler. His first volumes of poems were unpopular with the critics, when they were noticed at all. There was one man, nevertheless, who was much struck by these early endeavors, and that was Coleridge.


In October 1793, Wordsworth managed once more to return to Paris, a feat that took much courage. He found Blois cut off from Paris and once again returned to England. For years after, he had nightmares about what he had seen of the Terror.


In September of 1795, William and Dorothy got one of their most ardent wishes fulfilled — that of living together — when they let a house at Racedown, in Dorset, in southwest England. Wordsworth and Cole-ridge met in Bristol late in 1795 and corresponded thereafter. They did not become close friends until 1797. Together they planned a revolutionary volume which they supposed would change the course of English literature. Lyrical Ballads appeared September 1, 1798. It was slow to win literary favor but gradually acquired its permanent significance as the turning point in English poetry.


In 1802, Wordsworth married Mary Hutchinson, a friend from childhood. She bore him six children. In 1805, a favorite brother drowned at sea, and this event shocked the poet. In the spring, The Prelude, begun in 1799, was concluded. In 1812, two of his children died within months of each other. The first collected edition of his poems appeared in 1815; five more editions followed between then and 1850. A bequest enabled him to indulge his passion for travel, and he toured Europe. From about 1829, his sister, who had always been high-strung, began to be mentally ill; in 1835, she went completely mad.


The later years of his life were peaceful. He had been given a job in the civil service in 1813 and thereafter took the large house called Rydal Mount, near Grasmere, where he was to live the rest of his life. His youthful religious skepticism was resolved, and he embraced the established church. He veered toward conservatism from the very moment of Napoleon's rise to power, and later he vociferously opposed many of the beneficial liberal measures of the time. He received honorary degrees from Durham (1838) and Oxford (1839). In 1842, he resigned his civic post and was awarded a pension. The following year, on the death of Southey, he was appointed Poet Laureate.


Toward the end of his life, he knew much fame. He was welcomed everywhere as a celebrity. The critics were stilled by his laureateship, and his verse became quite popular with the burgeoning middle class. It was very fashionable among the early Victorians to gather for group readings of Wordsworth's poetry.


In 1850, the death of his beloved daughter Dora (Dorothy) brought a depression from which he could not recover. On April 23, he died at the age of eighty. Thus was silenced one of the noblest voices of Romantic times and of all times.

***

 THE RESTORATION PERIOD IN ENGLISH LITERATURE.


Introduction


It is one of the most important and interesting aspects of literature is the way that it both responds to and is inevitably shaped by the political context in which it is written. Some of the best examples of this can be found in the Restoration period, which lasted from 1660 to around 1688.The name 'Restoration' comes from the crowning of Charles II, which marks the restoring of the traditional English monarchical form of government following a short period of rule by a handful of republican governments. At the heart of this literature is the attempt to come to terms with the political events that had occurred in previous decades. The writings of this time are both innovative and varied; the style and subject matter of the literature produced during the Restoration period spanned the spectrum from definitively religious to satirical and risqué. In 1688, James II, Charles II's brother, was removed from the throne, which many scholars use to mark the end of Restoration literature.


Political Context


In addition to conveniently providing the title for the period, the restoration of Charles II has a particularly defining influence on the literature that was written in the second half of the 17th century. The political events of the previous decades resulted in tremendous turmoil for the English people.

The divisions between those who supported a more traditional form of government and those who wanted a more republican form of government led to strong tensions throughout England. These tensions led to the English Civil War, which lasted from 1642 to 1651 and was a particularly brutal experience for many British people. The war culminated with the beheading of Charles I in 1649, and from 1649 to 1659 various forms of republican government ruled Britain.


In 1660, Charles II became king, thereby restoring the English monarchy. After Charles II died in 1685, his brother, James II, took over the throne. Afraid of the policies James II might introduce, William III removed Charles II in 1688 and took over the English throne in 1689. This act is often referred to as the Glorious Revolution because, relative to the violence of the English Civil War, the transfer of power was not very bloody. Some scholars use the displacement of James II as one place to mark the end of the Restoration period. As with all periods of literature, this is a somewhat arbitrary date, and as we'll see in the rest of this lesson, not all of the styles and themes common to the Restoration era literature perfectly coincide with this date.


Philosophical Context


The start of the Restoration period roughly coincides with the beginning of what is known as the Enlightenment, which lasted until the end of the 18th century. The Enlightenment was defined by an emphasis on reason and logic; the thinkers of the period, moreover, helped develop the modern science that treats the natural world as a knowable and testable subject. Although the influence of the Enlightenment on the Restoration period is tremendous, it's important to note the humility towards human reason that is common to much Restoration literature. Many Restoration writers viewed the changes to their government, and the violence that these changes brought with them, as the direct result of those who dogmatically held to their ideology. In this sense, the political events that occurred in England provide insight into the skepticism that is at the heart of Restoration literature.


The Theatre


One of the most significant aspects of Restoration literature is the return of the theatre. As a result of the influence of religious and political leaders who believed it to be sinful, the theatre had been closed for 18 years. Charles II, however, was a big fan of drama and quickly allowed and encouraged the theatre's presence.This period saw many innovations in theatre, including the important new genre called Restoration comedy. In stark contrast to the humble spiritual themes that were common to the literature before 1660, Restoration comedy was frequently crass, largely sexual, and often focused on the interactions of the elite members of English society. Popular writers of Restoration comedy include John Dryden, George Etherege, and William Congreve. Although Restoration literature is commonly considered to end around 1688, Restoration comedy was written into the 1700s.


Poetry


Like the theatre, poetry was strongly influenced by the political context of the mid-17th century. In contrast to the poetry popular in the first half of the 17th century that emphasized religious truths, Restoration poetry focused more on the glory and powerful potential of human beings to understand and improve the world. Many poets attempted to outline ways to live and write and praised the importance of thinking for oneself. One form that this belief in human potential took was an emphasis on classical literature; many poets cited the importance of learning from Greek and Roman poets and some became famous for their translations of ancient poetry. Despite this trend of praising the potential of humans, Restoration literature is incredibly diverse and includes many poets who produced poetry that attempted to guide people back to traditional religion as well as stinging satire.


One of the most important formal aspects of Restoration poetry was the use ofheroic couplets, which are rhyming lines of iambic pentameter. In iambic pentameter, each line has five iambs, which are metrical feet made up of one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable, as in 'away'. This form allowed writers to produce lofty and philosophical poetry; in a famous poem titled Absalom and Achitophel, for example, John Dryden uses heroic couplets.

Like Restoration comedy, it's difficult to demonstrate exactly when many of the features that are common to this era's poetry ended. Heroic couplets, for example, continued to be popular for the next 100 years.


Prose and Fiction


One particularly important development during this period was the evolution of formal prose. Inspired by the optimism of the Enlightenment, writers began producing philosophical and religious texts. The Restoration also saw the beginning of formal journalism - people began learning about current events through large printed sheets.Similarly, prose fiction finds its roots in this period of literature. Previously, narratives had frequently been composed in verse, but with the help of a greater reading public and more advanced printing techniques, writers began to tell their stories in prose. Although critics inevitably disagree over when the actual first novel was written, many look to this period as a time when authors began to use many of the conventions that are central to novels.


Summary


The Restoration Period of English Literature roughly lasts from 1660 to 1688. It begins with Charles II returning to the throne following the rule of various republican governments that ruled England from 1649 to 1659 after Charles I was executed; it can be considered to end with the Glorious Revolution, which is the disposition of James II by William III. The period is very much influenced by the political events before it, as well as the Enlightenment philosophy that was coming out of the period. The literature of the period was incredibly diverse and included Restoration comedy, a sexually charged form of theatre, as well as the beginning of journalism. Much Restoration poetry uses heroic couplets, which are made of rhyming lines of iambic pentameter.

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